 国名：哥伦北美文学网比亚共和国（The Re月public of Colombia) 天x
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国旗：呈长方形，长与宽之比约为３：２。年r何自上而下由黄、蓝、红三个平行横长方形相s连而成，黄色部分占旗面的一半，蓝色、红全A为色各占旗面的１／４，黄色象征金色的阳光和、谷物和丰富的自然资源；蓝色代表蓝2天、海洋和河流；红色象征爱国者为争取国家独立和民族解放而洒下的鲜血。 s何
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国徽： 中心图案为盾徽。盾面中间是一顶“自由之帽”，象征自由和解放。盾面上部为两只象征丰饶的羊角，中间一颗红石榴。哥伦比亚曾称“新格拉纳达共和国”，“格拉纳达”在西班牙语中意为“石榴”。盾面下部的图案描绘哥伦比亚西濒太平洋，北临加勒比海的地理位置。盾徽上端为一只美洲神鹰叼着月桂枝叶花环，象征国家的独立和光荣；鹰爪下的绶带上用西班牙文写着“自由、秩序”，意为在秩序下实行自由。盾徽两侧各悬挂两面国旗。了4
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国家政要：总统阿尔瓦罗·乌里韦·贝莱斯(Alvaro Uribe)，２００２年８月任职。t和
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自然地理：1141748平方公里（除岛屿和领海外）。位于南美洲西北部，东邻委内瑞拉、巴西，南接厄瓜多尔、秘鲁，西北角与巴拿马接壤，北临加勒比海，西濒太平洋。 D自
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人口： 4453万（2003年）。其中印欧混血种人占60％，白人占20％，黑白混血种人占18％，其余为印第安人和黑人。人口年增长率1.79％。官方语言为西班牙语。多数居民信奉天主教。 要如
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首都：圣菲波哥大（Bogota），人口649万（2001年）。年平均气温14℃。 y 8无
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简史：古代境内为奇布查族等印第安人的分说无p布地区。１５３６世纪沦为西班牙殖民地，小称新格兰纳达。１８１０年７月２０日宣布了一k脱离西班牙独立，后遭镇压。１８１９年南年C来美解放者玻利瓦尔领导的起义军在波亚卡战花役获胜后，哥伦比亚最终获得独立。 m生g上
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1821年至1822年同现委内瑞拉、巴拿马和厄瓜k多尔共同组成大哥伦比亚共和国，1829年至1830北美文学网年委、厄两国先后退出。1831年改称新格兰纳北美文学网达共和国。1861年称哥伦比亚合众国。1886年定mo要国名为哥伦比亚共天和国。1903年，巴拿马省在美国策动下宣布脱离哥独立。独立后，自上由党和保守党轮流执政。2002年5月，独立人士乌里韦在大选首轮投票中以超过半数的选票当选总统，打破了哥两大传统政党轮流执政的政治格局。e北美文学网
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政治：根据宪法，哥伦比亚为中央集权国家。立法、行政和司法三权分离。总统由直选产生，为国家元首和政府首脑。议会是国家的立法机构。内阁是政府行政机构，由总统直接领导。实行代议制民主，立法、司法和行政三权分离；总统为国家元首兼政府首脑，亦是武装部队统帅，由直接选举产生，不能连任；恢复设立副总统；省市长改为直接选举产生；保障人身安全、信仰、结社、劳动、思想和教育自由，以及国家负责使人权得到尊重。 个z
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经济：自然资源丰富，煤炭、石油4、绿宝石为主要矿藏。已探明煤炭储量约240 个t亿吨，居拉美首位。石油储量18亿桶，天然气储量187亿立方米，绿宝石储量居世界第一位7，铝矾土储量为1亿吨，铀储量4万吨。此外还小有金、银、镍、铂、铁等矿藏。森林面积约4923万公顷。哥伦比亚历史上是以生产咖啡为主 生年的农业国。1999年，受亚洲金融危机等影响，国经济陷入60年来最严重的衰退。2000年经济开全上全始复苏，之后，一直保持低速增长。2003年增e速加快，建筑业持续增长，电力需求加大，m无9金融业势头良好，贷款和私人投资增加，传 个自统产品出口8p月扩大。哥是拉美重要的旅游中心之一，旅游北美文学网业较发达。2003年，外国游客62万人。主要旅日游区有：卡塔赫纳、圣玛尔塔、圣菲波哥大上、圣安德列斯和普罗维登西亚群岛、麦德我风上林、瓜希拉半岛、博 们的亚卡等。说sb
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新闻出版：全国约有４００种报刊杂志。主要报纸有：《时代报》，《旁观者报》，《新世纪报》，《共和国报》。主要杂志（均为周刊）有：《向导》、《新边疆》、《经济综合》、《星期》、《口号》。以上报刊均为西班牙文。哥伦比亚新闻社是哥最大的私人通讯社，成立于１９８１1年，向全国近２０家报纸和电台提供新闻。全国共有５８２座广播电台。“国家电台”是唯一国营电台，创建于１９４０年。“哥伦比亚广播公司”、“全国广播公司”和“托德拉尔”电台为较大的三家私人广播公司，在各地设有广播发射台和转播台。电视业始于１９５４年。全国共有１５家电视台，其中三家为国家电视台和播放台，但一、二台通过合同向私人电视节目制作台和播放台出租，第三台为国家直接管理，播放文化教育等节目。x
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外交：奉行独立自主、不结盟和多元化的外交政策。外交重点是进一步密切与美国的关系，加强同拉美地区特别是周边国家的合作，巩固同欧盟的传统联系，增进与亚太国家的交流合作。 yw全
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与中国关o系：１９８０年8c0２月７日，哥伦比tv大亚同中国北美文学网建交。来 来是
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哥伦k比亚：国名。在南美洲西北部，西濒太平洋国，北的临加勒比海，东同委内瑞拉，2东南同巴西，南与秘鲁、厄瓜多尔，西北与巴拿马为x邻。面积 kz 一
114.2万平方公里。人口3，060万（1987），印欧混血种人占57％，白种人占20％，黑白混血种人占14％，余为黑种人和印第安人等。西班牙语为国语，多信天主教。首都圣菲波哥大。西部除沿海平原外，为西、中、东三条平行的科迪勒拉山脉构成的高原，山间有宽阔的各地，南部有一系列火山锥，西北部为马格达莱纳河下游冲积平原，水道纷歧，湖沼广布。东部为亚马孙河与奥里诺科河上游支流冲积平原，约占全国总面积的三分之二。赤道横贯南部，平原南部和西岸为热带雨林气候，向北逐渐转为热带草原和干燥草原气候，海拔1，000-2，000米的山区属亚热带，2，000-3，000米属温带，3，000-4，500米属高寒草地，4，500米以上的高山地带终年积雪。矿物资源丰富，主要有石油、煤、金、铂、铁、铜、绿宝石等，此外还有银、锌、镍、铝土、铅、铀等。水力蕴藏量为5，000万千瓦。森林面积约占全国面积的一半以上。十六世纪沦为西班牙殖民地。1810年7月20日宣布脱离西班牙统治，1819年获得独立。1822年同今厄瓜多尔和委内瑞拉组成大哥伦比亚共和国。1829年、1830年委、厄相继退出后，1831年称新格兰纳达共和国。1861年改称哥伦比亚九省联邦。1863年又改称哥伦比亚合众国，1886年改名哥伦比亚共和国。1903年境内巴拿马省脱离哥伦比亚，建立巴拿马共和国。经济以农业为主，从业人口占全国劳动力的一半。咖啡产值占农业总产值的三分之一以上，产量和出口量仅次于巴西，居世界第二位。其他主要农作物有水稻、玉米、香蕉、甘蔗、棉花和烟草。畜牧业较发达，牧场占总面积28.9％。矿业以开采石油和煤为主，是拉丁美洲主要产金国，铂产量居世界第四位，绿宝石产量居世界首位。工业发展较快，其产值已占国内生产总值的五分之一以上。以制糖、咖啡加工、纺织为主的轻工业占工业总产值的70％以上，还有冶金、机器制造、汽车装配、水泥、化学、炼油、石油化工等。旅游业有较快发展。输出以咖啡为大宗，占出口总额的50％以上；次为煤、黄金、石油、香蕉、贵金属以及纺织品、服装、水泥等。花卉出口次于荷兰居世界第二位。输入机器设备、车辆、工业原料和食品等。交通运输以公路为主，航空运输亦较发达。 g
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①哥伦比亚特区位于美国的东北部，靠近维吉尼亚州和马里兰州。它位于北纬38.913611度，西经-77.013222度，总面积177平方公里，其中有10.16%的地区是水。此地有相当多博物馆，国际女性艺术博物馆就是其中之一。 一说日月
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②美国南卡罗来纳州最大城市、首府。位于中部，康格利河溯航终点。人口9.9万，大市区40.8万（1980）。1786年建为州首府，1865年南北战争时被毁，后重建。向为棉花和其他农产品集散地，现仍为南部棉纺工业中心之一，农林产品加工、电子仪器、玻璃、塑料和肥料等工业发达。文教中心。有大学多所。0
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③美国密苏里州中部城市。在杰斐逊城以北 48公里。人口6.2万（1980）。建于1821年。1826年设市。周围地区农牧业发达。工业有乳制品、砖瓦、印刷等。主要医疗和学术中心。设有州立癌科医院、州立精神病院、密苏里大学、基督教大学等。c
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④美国密西西比州南部城镇。在杰克逊以南 6a120公里处。人口7，700（1980）。是附 人日近生产棉花、谷物、家禽、牛的贸易点和工业中心。开采原油、天然气，还有服装、家具、纸浆来、胶合板我全风等工业。2
Colombia (IPA: /kəˈlʌmbɪə/) officially the Republic of Colombia (Spanish: República de Colombia (help·info), Spanish pronunciation: [reˈpuβlika ðe koˈlombja]), is a country located in northwestern South America. Colombia is bordered to the east by Venezuela[1] and Brazil;[2] to the south by Ecuador and Peru;[3] to the north by the Atlantic Ocean, through the Caribbean Sea; to the north-west by Panama; and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. Colombia also shares maritime borders with the Caribbean countries of Jamaica, Haiti and the Dominican Republic and the Central American countries of Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.[4][5]们
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Colombia is the 26th largest nation in the world and the fourth-largest in South America (after Brazil, Argentina, and Peru), with an area more than twice that of France. It also has the third-largest population in Latin America after Brazil and Mexico.[6]我w 一
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The territory of what is now Colombia was originally inhabited by indigenous tribes which had migrated from North and Central America, including the Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona. To the south lay the Inca Empire.[7] The Spanish arrived in 1499, and initiated a period of conquest and colonisation which ultimately led to the creation of the Viceroyalty of New Granada (comprising what is now Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama) with its capital at Bogotá.[8] Independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 "Gran Colombia" had collapsed with the secession of Venezuela and Ecuador. Modern day Colombia, with Panama, emerged as the Republic of New Granada. The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858), and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared in 1886.[9] Panama seceded in 1903.t是
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Colombia has a long tradition of constitutional government, and the Conservative and Liberal parties, founded in 1843 and 1848 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. However, tensions between the two have frequently erupted into violence, most notably in the Thousand Days War (1899-1902) and La Violencia, beginning in 1948. Since the 1960s, government forces have been engaged in conflict with left-wing insurgents and illegal right-wing paramilitaries. Fuelled by the cocaine trade, this escalated dramatically in the 1990s. However, the insurgents lack the military or popular support necessary to overthrow the government, and in recent years the violence has been decreasing. Insurgents continue attacks against civilians, and large swathes of the countryside remain under guerrilla influence, but the Colombian government has stepped up efforts to reassert government control throughout the country, and now has a presence in every one of its municipalities.[9]上f
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Colombia is a standing middle power[10] with the second largest Spanish-speaking population in the world after Mexico.[6] It is also one of the largest manufacturers in South America. Colombia is very ethnically diverse, and the interaction between descendents of the original native inhabitants, Spanish colonisers, African slaves and twentieth-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East has produced a rich cultural heritage. This has also been influenced by Colombia's incredibly varied geography. The majority of the urban centres are located in the highlands of the Andes mountains, but Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines. Ecologically, Colombia is considered to be among 17 of the most megadiverse countries in the world.[11]4全
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The word "Colombia" comes from the name of Christopher Columbus (Cristóbal Colón in Spanish, Cristoforo Colombo in Italian). It was conceived by the revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference to all the New World, especially to those territories and colonies under Spanish and Portuguese rule. The name was then adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819 formed out of the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela and Ecuador).[12]B中北美文学网
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In 1830, when Venezuela and Ecuador separated, the Cundinamarca region that remained became a new country: the Republic of New Granada. In 1858 New Granada officially changed its name to the Granadine Confederation, then in 1863 the United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name — the Republic of Colombia — in 1886.[12]说u是 为y
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Shaded relief map of Colombia.Colombia is the 26th largest nation in the world and the fourth-largest country in South America. Located in the northwestern region of South America, it is bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the North by the Atlantic Ocean, through the Caribbean Sea; to the north-west by Panama; and to the west by the Pacific Ocean. Besides the countries in South America, the Republic of Colombia is recognized to share maritime borders with the Caribbean countries of Jamaica, Haiti, the Dominican Republic and the Central American countries of Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica.[4][13] Colombia has more physical diversity packed into its borders than any other area of comparable size in Latin America.[14] Colombia has the highest diversity of birds and amphibians of any country on earth, with 1,815 species and 583 species, respectively, known to date.[15] The country is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.大i
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Los Llanos plains in Colombia.Geologically Colombia is formed by two great territorial zones, one submerged in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean sea covering a total area of 828,660 km² and the second is the emerged land which is formed by the Andes mountain range and the Llanos plains that are shared with Venezuela and cover an area of some 1'143,748 km². Colombian surface features form complicated land patterns. The western third of the country is the most complex, starting at the shore of the Pacific Ocean in the west and moving eastward at a latitude of 5 degrees north, a diverse sequence of features is encountered; In the extreme west are the very narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, which are backed by the Serranía de Baudó, one of the lowest and narrowest of Colombia's mountain ranges. Next is the broad region of the Río Atrato/Río San Juan lowland.0这
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the Magdalena River at Santa Cruz de Mompox.The western mountain range, the Cordillera Occidental, is a moderately high range with peaks reaching up to about 13,000 ft (4,000 m). The Cauca River Valley, an important agricultural region with several large cities on its borders, separates the Cordillera Occidental from the massive Cordillera Central. Several snow-clad volcanoes in the Cordillera Central have summits that rise above 18,000 ft (5,500 m). The valley of the Magdalena River, a major transportation artery, separates the Cordillera Central from the main eastern range, the Cordillera Oriental. The peaks of the Cordillera Oriental are moderately high. This range differs from Colombia's other mountain ranges in that it contains several large basins. To the east of the country, the sparsely populated, flat to gently rolling eastern lowlands called Llanos orientales part of the Orinoco river basin and the jungle covered Amazon region part of the Amazon river basin (both basins called eastern plains) cover almost 60 percent of the country's total land area. The northern plains are mostly part of the Caribbean natural region which includes the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, the highest mountain by the sea and the Guajira Peninsula, mostly arid with another separate formation from the Andes mountain range, the Serranía de Macuira to form the Guajira-Barranquilla xeric scrub.rniB
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Glacier Snowy peaks of the Nevado del Tolima volcano. 5,200+ metres (17,060 ft)The climate of Colombia is determined by its proximity to the Earth's Equator predominating a tropical and isothermal climate, presenting variations within five natural regions and depending on the altitude; determined by mountain climate, temperature, humidity, and winds; influenced by the trade winds and precipitation which is influenced by the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Colombia is also affected by the effects of the El Niño and La Niña.0
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Temperatures generally decrease about 3.5 °F (2 °C) for every 1,000-foot (300-m) increase in altitude above sea level, presenting perpetual snowy peaks to lower hot lands. Rainfall varies by location and is present in two seasons (two dry and two rainy) in Colombia presenting one of the highest rainfalls in the world in the Pacific region. Rainfall in parts of the Guajira Peninsula seldom exceeds 30 in (75 cm) per year. Colombia's rainy southeast, however, is often drenched by more than 200 in (500 cm) of rain per year. Rainfall in most of the rest of the country runs between these two extremes.北美文学网
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The hot and humid Colombian Pacific coast, one of the rain9jniest in the world.Altitude affects not only temperature, b 北美枫在ut also vegetation. In fact, altitude is one of the most important influences on vegetation patterns in Colombia. The m为和mountainous parts of the country can be divided into severa天l vegetation zones according to altitude, although the alti以tude limits of each zone may vary somewhat depending on the山在在 latitude. The "tierra caliente" (hot land), below 3,300 ft (1,000 m), is the zone of tropical crops. The tierra templme不ada (temperate land), extending from an altitude of 3,300 t如o 6,600 ft (1,000 to 2,000 m). Wheat and potatoes dominate in the "tierra fría" (cold land), at altitudes from 6,600 人要to 10,500 ft (2,000 to 3,200 m). In the "zona forestada" (f小orested zone), which is located between 10,500 and 12,800 f和t (3,200 and 3,900 m). Treeless pastures table lands 日dominate the páramos, or alpine grasslands, at altitudes o北美文学网f 12,800 to 15,100 ft (3,9北美文学网00 to花 4,600 m). Above 15,100 ft (4,600 m), where temperatures ar 生天e below freezing, is the "tierra helada", a zone of花 permanent snow 上and ice.2说何自
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Colombian Flora and Fauna also interact with climate zone patterns. Scrub woodland of scattered trees and bushes dominates the semiarid northeastern steppe and tropical desert. To the south, savannah (tropical grassland) vegetation covers the eastern plains; Colombian portion of the llanos. The rainy areas in the southeast are blanketed by tropical rain forest. In the mountains, the spotty patterns of precipitation in alpine areas complicate vegetation patterns. The rainy side of a mountain may be lush and green, while the other side, in the rain shadow, may be parched. As a result Colombia is considered to be among 17 of the most megadiverse countries in the world.[11]春4
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Main article: Environmental issues in Colombia春z
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Nevado del Ruiz volcano, erupted in 1985 causing the Arme如ro tragedy.The environmental issues in Colombia are caused by both natural hazards and human effects on the environmen不t. Natural hazards are determined by the global positioning of Colombia by the Pacific ring of fire causing geological山人小 instability. Colombia has 15 major volcanoes which have ca何何上used tragedies like Armero and geological faults that have 2caused numerous devastating earthquakes like the 1999 Armen日ia earthquake. Human induced deforestation have also added to the problems of geological instability and inundations d这uring the rainy seasons which are susceptible to the El Nin了为go and to La Nina effect, two regions are very susceptible t 们no these mainly in the Caribbean region of Colombia; La Moja北美文学网na Region and the Magdalena river basin as well as the Vall8月Bey of the Cauca River in the Pacific Region of Colombia. Thne population increase and the burning of fossil fuels and industry, among other human produced waste has contaminated 天the environment of major cities7 and nearby water sources.i
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Participants in the Colombian armed conflict have also contributed to the pollution of the environment in Colombia. The illegally armed groups have deforested large portions of land to plant illegal crops (mostly on government designated protected areas) while the government fumigated these crops using hazardous chemicals. The guerrillas also destroyed oil pipelines creating major ecological disasters.不l
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Main articles: History of Colombia, Timeline of Colombian history, La Violencia, El Bogotazo, National Front (Colombia), and Colombian armed conflict (1964–present)w在们
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The Zipa used to cover his body in gold and, from his raft, he offered treasures to the Guatavita goddess in the middle of the sacred lake. This old Muisca tradition became the origin of El Dorado legend.Approximately 10,000 BC hunter-gatherer societies existed near present-day Bogotá (at "El Abra" and "Tequendama") which traded with one another and with cultures living in the Magdalena River Valley.[16] Beginning in the first millennium BC, groups of Amerindians developed the political system of "cacicazgos" with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. Within Colombia, the two cultures with the most complex cacicazgo systems were the Tayronas in the Caribbean Region, and the Muiscas in the highlands around Bogotá, both of which were of the Chibcha language family. The Muisca people are considered to have had one of the most developed political systems in South America, after the Incas.[17]来全
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Spanish explorers made the first exploration of the Caribbean littoral in 1499 led by Rodrigo de Bastidas. Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa started the conquest of the territory through the region of Urabá. In 1513, he was also the first European to discover the Pacific Ocean which he called Mar del Sur (or "Sea of the South") and which in fact would bring the Spaniards to Peru and Chile. The territory's main population was made up of hundreds of tribes of the Chibchan and Carib, currently known as the Caribbean people, whom the Spaniards conquered through warfare and alliances, while resulting disease such as smallpox and the conquest itself caused a demographic reduction among the indigenous.[18] In the sixteenth century, Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa.f
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Francisco de Paula Santander, Simón Bolivar and other he3t天roes of the Independence of Colombia in the Congress of C全花búcuta.Since the beginning of the periods of Conquest and Colonization, there were several rebel movements under Spanish rule, most of them either being crushed or remaining tooz weak to change the overall situation. The last one, which sought outright independence from Spain, sprang up around 1s810, following the independence of St. Domingue in 1804 (pr说esent day Haiti), who provided a non-negligible degree of ssupport to the eventual leaders of this rebellion: Simón Boglívar and Francisco de Paula Santander. Simón Bolívar hasd become the first president of Colombia and Francisco de P 个自aula Santander was Vice President; when Simón Bolívar ste5pped down, Santander became the second president of Colombia. The rebellion finally succeeded in 1819 when the tfvberritory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Repub说lic of Greater Colombia organized as a Confederation along Ecuador and Venezuela (Pan北美文学网ama was part of 6是 Colombia).了小0Bs
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The Gran Colombia.Internal political and territorial divisions led to the secession of Venezuela and Quito (today's Ecuador) in 1830. At this time, the so-called "Department of Cundinamarca" adopted then the name "Nueva Granada", which it kept until 1856 when it became the "Confederación Granadina" (Grenadine Confederation). After a two year civil war in 1863, the "United States of Colombia" was created, lasting until 1886, when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days civil war (1899 - 1902) which together with the United States of America's intentions to influence in the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the establishment of it as a nation. Colombia engulfed in a year long war with Peru over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas Department and its capital Leticia. Soon after, Colombia achieved a relative degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as La Violencia ("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly because of mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal Presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on April 9, 1948. This assassination caused riots in Bogotá and became known as El Bogotazo, the violence from these riots spread through out the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians. From 1953 to 1964 the violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'etat, and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París Gordillo.花k 北美枫v
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After Rojas deposition the two political parties Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal Party agreed to the creation of a "National Front", whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly. The presidency would be determined by an alternating conservative and liberal president every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended "La Violencia", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political injustices continued and many guerrillas were formally created such as the FARC, ELN and M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus with influences from Cold War doctrines.要z
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Emerging in the late 1970s, powerful and violent drug cartels developed during the 1980s and 1990s. The Medellín Cartel under Pablo Escobar and the Cali Cartel, in particular, exerted political, economic and social influence in Colombia during this period. These cartels also financed and influenced different illegal armed groups throughout the political spectrum. Some enemies of these allied with the guerrillas and created or influenced paramilitary groups.这
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The new Colombian Constitution of 1991 was ratified after being drafted by the Constituent Assembly of Colombia. The constitution included key provisions on political, ethnic, human and gender rights. The new constitution initially prohibited the extradition of Colombian nationals. There were accusations of lobbying by drug cartels in favor of this prohibition. The cartels had previously promoted a violent campaign against extradition, leading to many terrorist attack and mafia style executions. They also tried to influence the government and political structure of Colombia by means of corruption, as in the case of the 8000 Process scandal.u和
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Members of the Colombian National Army during a field training exercise.In recent years, the country has continued to be plagued by the effects of the drug trade, guerrilla insurgencies like FARC and paramilitary groups such as the AUC (later demobilized, though paramilitarism remains active), which along with other minor factions have engaged in a bloody internal armed conflict. President Andrés Pastrana and the FARC attempted to negotiate a solution to the conflict between 1998 and 2002 but failed to do so. President Andrés Pastrana also began to implement the Plan Colombia initiative, with the dual goal of ending the armed conflict and promoting a strong anti-narcotic strategy.r 国
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During the presidency of Álvaro Uribe, who was elected on the promise of applying military pressure on the FARC and other criminal groups, some security indicators have improved, showing a decrease in reported kidnappings (from 3700 in the year 2000 to 800 in 2005) and a decrease of more than 48% in homicides between July 2002 and May 2005 and of the terrorist guerrila itself reduced from 16.900 insurgents to 8.900 insurgents. It is argued that these improvements have favored economic growth and tourism.[19] The 2006–2007 Colombian parapolitics scandal emerged due to the revelations and judicial implications of past and present links between paramilitary groups, mainly the AUC, and some government officials and many politicians, most of them allied to the governing administration.[20]月
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Casa de Nariño, the presidential palace in Bogotá houses the President of Colombia and maximum representative of the Executive Branch of Colombia.The Government of Colombia takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic as established in the Colombian Constitution of 1991. The Colombian government is divided into three branches of power; the executive, legislative and judicial with special control institutions and electoral institutions. The President of Colombia is the highest representative of the executive branch of government in Colombia and is also the head of state and head of government with supreme administrative authority, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Colombia.要的
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At a provincial level the executive is managed by department governors, municipal mayors at municipal level and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions such as corregidor for corregimientos. The legislative branch of government in Colombia is represented by the National Congress of Colombia which is formed by an upper house the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives. At a provincial level the legislative branch is represented by department assemblies and a municipal level with municipal councils. Both the legislative and executive branches share most of the government power while the judicial branch of Colombia functions as an independent body from the other two branches which are vested with a shared power. The judicial branch under a adversarial system is represented by the Supreme Court of Justice which is the highest entity in this branch but shared in responsibility with the Council of State, Constitutional Court and the Superior Council of the Judicature which also have jurisdictional and regional courts.h生 sn
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Main articles: Departments of Colombia and Municipalities of Colombiaz
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Colombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital d这istrict which is treated as a department. There are in total 10 districts assigned to cities in Colombia including Bogotá, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta, Tunja, Cúcuta, Popayán, Buenaventura, Tumaco and Turbo. Colombia is also日 subdivided into some municipalities which form departments, each with a municipal seat capital city assigned. Colombi日a is also subdivided into corregimientos which form municip d中alities. Each department has a local government which is hejaded by a department governor and its own department assembly elected for an period of four years in a regional election. Each municipaBlity also headed by a municipal mayor and a municipal co 北美枫人uncil. And for corregimientos there will be an elected corr花egidor 北美文学网or local leader.和天
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Some department have also local administrative regional subdivisions such as the departments of Antioquia and Cundinamarca, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other. In the case of some department where the population is still scarce and there are security problems such as in eastern Colombian departments of Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada there special administrative definitions for territories, some are considered Department corregimientos, which are a hybrid between a corregimiento and a municipality. The difference besides the population is also subject to a cut in the assigned budget.x花c
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Tall ship ARC Gloria, insignia of ColombiaThe executive branch of government is in charge of managing the defense affairs of Colombia with the President of Colombia being the supreme chief of the armed forces, followed by the Minister of Defense, which controls the Military of Colombia and the Colombian National Police among other institutions. The Colombian military is divided into three branches with their respective chains of command; the Colombian National Army, the Colombian Air Force and the Colombian National Armada.来月
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The national police functions as a gendarmerie independen 1春tly from the Military as the law enforcement agency for the 北美枫f entire country. Each of these operates with their own inteBlligence apparatus and also separately from the national in以telligence agency Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad. The National Police has a presence in all municipality sea自ts of Colombia, while the National Army is formed by divisions, regiments and special units. The Colombian National Ar这mada is formed by the Colombian Marine Corps, Naval Force o我个是f the Pacific, Naval Force of the Caribbean, Naval Force ofu the South, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the S北美文学网pecific Command of San Andres y Providencia. The Colombian 来Air Force is formed by 13 air units: EMAVI, ESUFA, IMA, CAC山的月OM 1, CACOM 2, CACOM 3, CACOM 4, CACOM 5, CACOM 6, CATAM, CqAMAN, G上ACA年c和R and GAORI. yo dy
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Main articles: Foreign relations of Colombia and Colombian diplomatic missions大他
The Foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President of Colombia and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all the continents, but not in all countries, and also multilateral relations with Brussels (Mission to the European Union) Geneva (Permanent Mission to the United Nations and other International Organizations) Montevideo (Permanent Missions to ALADI and MERCOSUR) Nairobi (Permanent Missions to the United Nations and other International Organizations) New York City (Permanent Mission to the United Nations) Paris (Permanent Mission to UNESCO) Rome (Permanent Mission to FAO) Washington DC (Permanent Mission to the Organization of American States).r 来在
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The foreign relations of Colombia are mostly concentrated on combating illegal drug trade, improving Colombian image in the international community, fight against terrorism, expanding the Colombian products in the global market and environmental issues. Colombia receives special military and commercial cooperation and support from the United States mainly through Plan Colombia to fight against the internal armed groups as well as special financial preferences from the European Union in certain products.0 1如
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M3全0ain articles: Politics of Colombia, Elections in Colosmbia, and List of political parties qin Colombiam如2如
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Voters concentrate in a voting center during the legislative elections of 2006. As a rule, voters are not allowed to wear political propaganda in allusion to a candidate or party, or have electronic devices on their possession while voting.The Politics of Colombia take place in the framework of a presidential representative democratic republic as established in the Colombian Constitution of 1991. The constitution vested the National Electoral Council along with the National Registry of the Civil State with the function of organizing and controlling the electoral process in Colombia. Since the 2005 reform the electoral process abides by the Law 974 of 2005 which modified the way political parties organize and interact in the government. Colombia goes through three electoral processes to elect candidates for a period of four years; a Presidential election, for president and vice president candidates (authorized to serve one reelection, 8 years), a legislative election for congress; senate and chamber of representatives (authorized many terms through reelection) and a regional election to elect department governors, department assemblies, municipal mayors and municipal councils and Local administrative juntas (executive regional leaders are only authorized one term in office).j和
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The last presidential and legislative elections were on May 28, 2006, in which president Álvaro Uribe was reelected by a vote of 62%, with 22% going to Carlos Gaviria of the Democratic Pole, and 12% to Horacio Serpa of the Liberal Party. Colombia's bicameral parliament is the Congress of Colombia consists of a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives of Colombia and a 102-seat Senate of Colombia. Members of both houses are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. With congressmen, Colombia also elects the president. Department deputies, city councils and mayors are elected one year and five months after the president's and congressmen's election. The latest regional election was on October 28, 2007 with some 27 million Colombians apt to vote to elect between some 86 thousand candidates to represent 1,098 Colombian municipalities and 32 governors of Colombian Departments. Colombian authorities mobilized 167,559 soldiers and policemen in order to vigil the 9,950 voting sites.[21]0 df
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The election process in the judicial system is headed by the Constitutional Court and members are appointed by the Congress of Colombia out of nominations made by the President and other high ranking tribunals, presidents of courts in the other hand are elected in internal elections. In Electoral Institutions and Control Institutions of Colombia officials are also appointed by the president and approved by congress like the Inspector General of Colombia.r9
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Main articles: Economy of 1f Colomb天ia and Agriculture in Colombiax全
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GDP growth 2001-2007Colombia's economy is fueled by abundant natural resources, a highly literate population and relatively high-valued currency. After experiencing decades of steady growth (average GDP growth exceeded 4% in the 1970-1998 period), Colombia experienced a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since 1929), and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. Colombia's economy suffers from weak domestic and foreign demand, austere government budgets, and serious internal armed conflicts. 为不 8u
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Plantation of Colombian coffee, Quindio. Coffee is the main agricultural export of Colombia.The IMF Economic Indicators published on September 2006, forecast the Colombian GDP to reach US$156.69 billion in 2008. Inflation has been below 6% for 2004, 2005, and 2006. Colombia's main exports include manufactured goods (41.32% of exports), petroleum (28.28%), coal (13.17%), and coffee (6.25%). Unofficially, illegal drugs are also a major export.[22] Colombia is one of the largest producers of pop-up books in the world.[23] 来b
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Colombia is also the largest exporter of plantains to the如 United States. It also exports many types of sugar crops. 北美枫sWithin Latin America, Colombia is known as a provider of fi花ne lingerie, with the industry being centered in Medellín. All imports, ex2ports, and the general trade balance are in record levels, 人的and the inflow of export dollars has resulted in substantia北美枫不和l re全这Aevaluation of the Colo2mbian Peso.hl
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The problems facing the country range from pension system problems to drug dealing to moderately high unemployment (12%). Several international financial institutions have praised the economic reforms introduced by current President Álvaro Uribe, which include measures designed to bring the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of gross domestic product (GDP). The government's economic policy and its controversial democratic security strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, and GDP growth in 2003 was among the highest in Latin America. On May 28, 2007, the American magazine BusinessWeek published an article naming Colombia the most Extreme Emerging Market on Earth.[24] l在9
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See also: Tourism in Colombia and Festivals in Colombia hq要
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Tourists in Cartagena.The Tourism industry in Colombia developed in the 1940s and has maintained a steady growth since then. The main tourist destinations are Bogotá, Cartagena, Eje cafetero, Santa Marta, Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, San Andrés Island among others, each presenting different tourist attractions. There are different tourist season in Colombia, the two most busy are related to religious celebrations; the holy week and Christmas among other numerous public holidays, including the celebrations surrounding the Independence of Colombia.[25]北美文学网7
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The most notabl 生是e festivities are the Cali's Fair, the Barranquilla's Carnival, the Bogotá summer festival, the Iberoamerican Theater Festival, the Festival of the Flowers, the Vallenato Legen北美文学网d Festival, Carnival of Blacks and Whites and the Fiestas del Mar. Despite Travel advisories warning not to travel to m8jColombia du月e to Colombian armed conflict, the country continues to attract more tourists in recent years. The apparent cause appears to be the current hardline approach of President Álvarso Uribe called democratic security to push rebels groups fa 一时rther away from the major cities, highways and tourist site 生来s that may attract international visitors. Since President 全无2Uribe took office in 2002, he has notably increased Colombi花a's stability and security by significant 人花ly boosting its military strength and police presence throuf为我ghout th上e country.Bo
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Arrecifes beach at the Tayrona Park, one of main eco-tourist destinations.This apparently has achieved fruitful results for the country's economy, particularly international tourism. In 2006, Colombia received some 1.5 million international visitors, an astonishing increase of about 50% from the previous year. Lonely Planet, a world travel publisher, picked Colombia as one of their top 10 world destinations for 2006.[26] The World Tourism Organization reported in 2004 that Colombia achieved the third highest percentage increase of tourist arrivals in South America between 2000 and 2004 (9.2%). Only Peru and Suriname had higher increases during the same period.[27] Because of the improved security, Caribbean cruise ships tours stop in Cartagena and Santa Marta. To further point out the improved security in the country, in June 2007, the Travel Channel's show, 5 Takes Latin America, aired an episode on Colombia. Points of interest on the show were Bogotá, Cocora Valley in Salento, and the Salt Cathedral of Zipaquirá.[28]他 日g
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The varied and rich geography, flora and fauna of Colombia has also developed an eco-tourist industry, mostly developed in the National Natural Parks of Colombia which include the areas of Amacayacu Park in the Department of Amazonas, Colombian National Coffee Park in the town of Montenegro, Quindío, the Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Los Nevados National Park (near the city of Manizales), Cocora valley in Salento, Quindío, PANACA theme Park, PANACA Savanna Park, Tayrona Park in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range (near the city of Santa Marta), the Tatacoa Desert, the Chicamocha Canyon National Park, Gorgona and Malpelo islands, as well as Cabo de la Vela in the Guajira Peninsula. 为r
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Occidente tunnel, Antioquia.Colombia has a network of national highways maintained by the Instituto Nacional de Vías or INVIAS (National Institute of Roadways) government agency under the Ministry of Transport. The Pan-American Highway travels through Colombia, connecting the country with Venezuela to the east and Ecuador to the south.时
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Colombia's principal airport is El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá. Several national airlines (Avianca, AeroRepública, AIRES , SATENA and EasyFly, ), and international airlines (such as Iberia, American Airlines, Varig, Copa, Continental, Delta, Air Canada, Air France, Aerolineas Argentinas, Aerogal, TAME, TACA) operate from El Dorado. Bogotá's airport is one of the largest and most expensive in Latin America. Because of its central location in Colombia and America, it is preferred by national land transportation providers, as well as national and international air transportation providers.风t
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Colombia is discussing current trends and challenges as well as recent international developments in the biofuels sector with the intention of contributing to the development of a sustainable and competitive biofuels strategy for Colombia and the region. [29] [30]在不k
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Colombian people at the Cali's FairWith approximately 43.6 million people in 2006,[3] Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico.i全
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Movement from rural to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-twentieth century, but has since tapered off. The urban population increased from 31% of the total population in 1938, to 57% in 1951 and about 70% by 1990. Currently the figure is about 77%. Thirty cities have a population of 100,000 or more. The nine eastern lowlands departments, constituting about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 3% of the population and a density of less than one person per square kilometer (two persons per sq mi.). Colombia's total population in 2015 is projected to be more than 52 million.[32]u3b生
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Afro-Colombian childrenThe country has a diverse populati月on that reflects its colourful history and the peoples that have populated here from ancient times to the present. The了lf historic amalgam of the different main groups forms the ba 北美枫4sics of Colombia's current demographics: European immigrant全mhs, Indigenous Natives, Africans, Asians, Middle Easterners jand other recent immigrants. Many of the indigenous peoples是 were absorbed into the mestizo population, but the remaining 700,000 currently represent over eighty-five distinct cu北美文学网ltures. The European immigrants were primarily Spanish colo5nists, but a number of other Europeans (Dutch, German, Italian, French, Swiss, Belgian, also many North Americans) migrated to the Caribbean region in the late 19th and early 20cth centuries, and in smaller numbers Polish, Lithuanian, En如glish and Croatian communities immigrated during the Secondg World War and the Cold War. For example, former Bogotá mayor Antanas Mockus is the son of L何3日ithuanian immigrants. Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th cen以tury, and continuing into the 19th century. Other immigrant populations includeg Asians and Middle Easterners, particularly Lebanese, Jorda8时7nians, Syrians, Chinese, Japanese and Koreans.5 日风
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The Wayuu represent the largest indigenous ethnic group in Colombia.[33]Before the Spanish colonization of the region that would become the country of Colombia, the territory was the home to many different indigenous peoples. Today more than fifty different indigenous ethnic groups inhabit Colombia. Most of them speak languages belonging to the Chibchan and Cariban linguistic families. Historically there are established 567 reserves (resguardos) for indigenous peoples and they are inhabitated by more than 800,000 people; the 1991 constitution established their native languages as official in their territories, most of them have bilingual education (Native and Spanish). Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu,[33] the Arhuacos, the Muisca, the Kuna people, the Witoto, the Páez, the Tucano and the Guahibo. The departamentos with the biggest Indian population are Cauca, Guajira and Guainia. 国个
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Main article: Immigration to Colombiawd
Because of its strategic location Colombia has received several immigration waves during its history. Most of these immigrants have settled in the Caribbean Coast; Barranquilla (the largest city in the Colombian Caribbean Coast) and other Caribbean cities have the largest population of Arab Lebanese, Jewish, Italian, German, French, Portuguese and Gypsy descendants. There are also important communities of German and Chinese descendants in the Caribbean Coast.7
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The census data in Colombia does not take into account etmhnicity, so percentages are basically estimates from other sources and can vary from one 们花another. Statistics reveal that Colombians are predominantl北美文学网y Roman Catholic and overwhelmingly speakers of Spanish, and that a majority of theum are the result rb of the a mixture o 北美枫gf Europeans, AfricanBs, Ame2rindians.北美枫在q是
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58% of the population is mestizo, or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, while 20% is of European ancestry. Another 14% is mulatto, or of mixed black African and European ancestry, while 4% is of black African ancestry and 3% are zambos, of mixed black African and Amerindian ancestry. Pure indigenous Amerindians comprise 1 percent of the population.[34] There are 101 languages listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database, of which 80 are spoken today as living languages. There are about 500,000 speakers of indigenous languages in Colombia today.[35]h年上
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More than two-thirds of all Colombians live in urban areas—a figure significantly higher than the world average. The literacy rate (94 percent) in Colombia is also well above the world average, and the rate of population growth is slightly higher than the world average. Also, a large proportion of Colombians are young, largely because of recent decreases in the infant mortality rate. While 33 percent of the people are 14 years of age or younger, just 4 percent are aged 65 or older.要
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Che Square (or Santander Square), campus of the National University of Colombia in Bogotá. The National University is the largest state owned university in Colombia.Over 94% of the entire population over 15 years of age can read and write, and this number has continued to increase throughout the years. Sixty percent of students complete primary schooling (5 years) and move onto secondary schooling (6 years). Most primary schools are private. Approximately 80 percent of Colombian children enter school, but they usually join a preschool academy until age 6 and then go to school. The school year extends from February to November in the capital city while in many other cities it extends from August to June. Primary education is free and compulsory for nine years for children between 6 and 12 years of age. The net primary enrollment (percentage of relevant age-group) in 2001 was 86.7 percent. The completion rate (percentage of age-group) for children attending elementary school (primaria) in 2001 totaled 89.5 percent. In many rural areas, teachers are poorly qualified, and only five years of primary school are offered. Secondary education (educación media) begins at age 11 and lasts up to six years, without any opportunity for vocational training. Secondary-school graduates are awarded the diploma (high-school diploma). Net secondary enrollment in 2001 was 53.5 percent. School life expectancy in 2001 was 11.1 years. Total public spending as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2001 was 4.4 percent—one of the highest rates in Latin America—as compared with 2.5 percent at the end of the 1980s. Government expenditures on education in 1999 totaled 19.7 percent of total government spending. The ratio of pupils to teachers in 2001 in primary school was 26:1 and in secondary school, 19:2. Colombia has 24 public universities. A total of 92.5 percent of the population is literate (male: 92.4 percent; female: 92.6 percent), according to a 2003 estimate. Literacy is at 93 percent in urban areas, but only 67 percent in rural areas. People in Colombia are educated in Spanish (see also Colombian Spanish). The second most spoken language is English.天的
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Salt Cathedral in the town of Zipaquirá, Cundinamarca.The National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are hard to obtain. Based on various studies, more than 95% of the population adheres to Christianity,[36] in which a huge segment of the population, between 81% and们 90%, practi 们lces Roman Catholicism. About 1% of Colombians p年日uractice indigenous全3r religions.何1z 为生
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Under 1% practice Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. Despite strong numbers of adherents, around 60% of respondents to a poll by El Tiempo report that they do not practice their faith actively.[37]上 A
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The Colombian constitution guarantees religious freedom, but also states that the State "is not atheist or agnostic, nor indifferent to Colombians' religious sentiment." Religious groups are readily able to obtain recognition as organized associations, but some smaller ones face difficulty in obtaining recognition as religious entities, which is required to offer chaplaincy services in public facilities.[37]以
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Main article: Culture of ColombiaenDk
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Fiesta in Palenque. Afro-Colombian tradition from San Bas如ilio de Palenque, one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2005.Colombian culturex lies at the crossroads of Latin America, and is distinguis9hed by having a very multicultural society. European, African, Native American, American, Middle Eastern, and other La 一这tin Amer的ican cultural influences such as Mexico and the Caribbean a 生国re all felt in Colombia's modern culture. Due to Colombia's geography and years of social and political instability, Colombian culture has been heavily fragmented into five majo全和tr cultural regions which also correspond to Colombian natural regions. Urban mi北美文学网gration, industrialisation, Globalization, and political, social and economic issues have alte北美文学网red the Colombian way of living throughout th rne years.r
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Inherited from colonial times, Colombia maintains its lar 北美枫hge base of Roman Catholic traditions which largely influence and unite its multicultural society. The mixing of variouus different ethnic traditions is reflected月 in Colombia's music and dance. The most well-known genres 何w山of music in Colombia are Cumbia and Vallenato, the latter beingfk小 strongly influenced by glxobal北美文学网 pop culture. 日大
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US President Bill Clinton and daughter Chelsea during a visit to Cartagena, Colombia, where they were greeted with Vallenato music by The Children of Vallenato group. Vallenato is perhaps the most representative of all Colombian cultural expressions. 以3m说
Festival of the Flowers in Medellín, Department of Antioquia.Colombia has multiple celebrations and festivals throughout the year, with a majority stemming from Roman Catholic religious traditions. Prominent examples of festivals include the Ibero-American Theater Festival, Barranquilla's Carnival, Carnival of Blacks and Whites, Independence day on, Holy Week and Christmas. A powerful cultural medium in Colombia is television; the telenovela Betty La Fea has gained international success via localized versions in the United States, Mexico, and Croatia. Television has also played a role in the development of the local film industry.的年25
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As in many Latin American countries, Colombians have developed a passion for Football (soccer). The Colombia national football team is seen as a symbol of unity and national pride. Colombia has been an "exporter" of many famous players, such as Freddy Rincon, Carlos Valderrama, Ruben Dario Bustos and Faustino Asprilla. Other Colombian athletes have achieved success in other sports, such as NASCAR's Juan Pablo Montoya, Major League Baseball's Edgar Rentería and Orlando Cabrera, and the PGA Tour's Camilo Villegas.不他人v中
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Other famous Colombians include the Nobel Prize winning author Gabriel Garcia Marquez, the artist Fernando Botero, the musicians Shakira, Juanes and Carlos Vives, and the actors Rafael Novoa, Catalina Sandino Moreno, and Sofia Vergara.wd
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The Cuisine of Colombia developed mainly from the food traditions of European countries. Spanish, Italian and French culinary influences can be seen in Colombian cooking. American cuisine, the cuisine of neighboring Latin American countries, Mexico and the Caribbean, as well as the cooking traditions of the Native Americans have all influenced Colombian cuisine. AB天
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National symbols have arisen from Colombia's multiculturalism and are objects or themes that are representative of Colombia, the Colombian people, and their shared culture. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture.以在
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See also 为小
[hide]v • d • lq e Co Cblombia topics c0
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History Timeline Indigenous peoples · Spanish conquest 说y无· New Kingdom of Granada · Viceroyalty of New Granad月a · Bolívar's War (Independence) · United Provinces of New Granada · Gran Colombia · RepumB8blic of New Granada · Granadine Confederation · United St上ates of Colo上mbia · Republic of Colombia (Thousand Days War · Separatif花国one of Panama · Colombia-Peru War · La Violencia · Nationalx Front · Current internBal armed conflict) 山q4时
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By topic Demogr 生baphic · Economic · Military · Natural 日w年
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Geography General Geology · Natural Regions (Caribbean · Pacific · Andean · Amazon · Orinoquía · Insular) t 有n
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By topic Cities · Climate · Mountains · Islands · Rivers · Fauna · Flora · Protected Areas · Environmental issues · Natural hazards r这
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Government Constitution Law · Bill of Rights · Separation of Powers 时花自
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Executive President · Vice President · Council of Ministers · Government agencies 花和
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Legislative Congress (Senate · Representatives) 1来
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Judicial Superior Council · At4torney General · Supreme Cojurt · Constitxutional Court 北美文学网月
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Control Controller General · Ombudsman · Auditor General · Inspector General c上
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Politics Political parties · Electoral system · Electio人国8ns · Political ideologies (Liberalism · Conservatism · G我9在uerrilla movements · Paramilitarism如) · Politic北美文学网al scandals 时
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Economy Agriculture · Banki在ng · Central Bank · Communications · Industry · Companies · Currency · Energy and mi日ning · Stock E全i个xchange · Taxat 一sion 月· Poverty 自D
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Demographics 1993 Census · 2005 Census · Immigration · Emigration · Languages (Colombian Spanish) · Health care · Education · Religion · Metropolitan Areas · Human rights · Drug trafficking · Water supply and sanitation 7花上
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Culture Architecture · Art · Handicrafts · Cinema · Cuisine · Festivals · Folklore · Languages · LGBT · Literature · Media · Medicine · Music · Mythology · National symbols · Public holidays · Science and technology · Sport · Tourism 0不如
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Transportation Vehicles · Highways · Airports · Railroads 为们自
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References gy
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Internet d花来
^ Gerhar Sandner, Beate Ratter, Wolf Dietrich Sahr and Karsten Horsx (1993). Conflictos Territoriales en el Mar Caribe: El conflicto fronterizo en el Golfo de Venezuela (Spanish). Biblioteca Luis Angel Arango. Retrieved on 2008-01-05. 北美枫来
^ The Geographer Office of the Geographer Bureau of Intelligence and Research (1985-04-15). Brazil-Colombia boundary (English). International Boundary Study. Retrieved on 2008-01-05. 在
^ a 全b CIA (2007山0z-12-13). Ecuador (English). World Fact Book. Retrieved on 2中008-01-05. 北美文学网37来
^ a b (Spanish) Tratados Internacionales limítrofes de Colombia 时 A
^ (Spanish) Colombia - Limites这 territoriales 北美枫何要
^ a b Michael Baron (2007-05-10). On Novak's Book and Col 有aombia (这English). US N北美文学网ews. Retrieved on 2008-02-29.
^ [1] Colombia. By Krzysztof Dydynski, Published 2003 Lonely Planet Kolumbie ISBN 0864426747 个e
^ Nicolás del Castillo Mathieu (March, 1992). LA PRIMERA VISION DE LAS COSTAS COLOMBIANAS, Repaso de Historia (Spanish). Revista Credencial. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. 97
^ a b CIA world fact book (2008-02-28). Colombia (English在). CIA. Retrieved on 2008-02-29. c 为风
^ David R. Davis, Brett Ashley Leeds and Will H. Moore (1998-11-21). Measuring Dissident and state behaviour: The Intranational Political Interactions (IPI) Project (English). Florida State University. Retrieved on 2008-01-05. 要风
^ a b "South America Banks on Regional Strategy to Safeguard Quarter of Earth's Biodiversity", Conservation International. Retrieved on 2007-06-29. 我6春
^ a b Carlos Restrepo Piedrahita (February, 1992). EL NOM 生天BRE "COLOMBIA", El único país qque lleva el n北美文学网ombre del Descubrimiento (Spanish). Revista Credencial北美文学网. Retrieved on北美文学网 2008-02-29. 来在
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^ Benton, M. J.. (2001): "Biodiversity on land and in the sea.", en Geological Journal, vol. 36, N° 3-4 了说m在
^ http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/468283.html Bs在
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^ The Story Of… Smallpox—and other Deadly Eurasian Germs j 为x
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^ (Spanish) Polo Democratico Alternativo ¿Por qué la parapolítica? February 26, 2007. Retrieved on August 19, 2007 一k
^ ELESPECTADOR.COM - Noticias h是h风
^ Clune, Sara. Colombia's illegal drug trade. Retrieved on 2007-11-13. c
^ Montanaro, Ann. A Concise History of Pop-up and Movable Books. Retrieved on 2007-02-01. t花p
^ BusinessWeek, Colombia, The Most说如l Extreme自 Em16说erging Market on以 Earth May 28, 2007 r年 s一
^ Colombia - Travel, adventure, action, eco-tourism and b在ackpacking community the world over 国with ExtremeTourist.com. 9Retr CCieved on c2007-10-03. 北美文学网B了
^ "Hot Destination: Colombia", Christian Science Monitor, May 9, 2006. 时他
^ International Tourist Arrivals by Country of Destination, Tourism Market Trends, 2005 Edition, World Tourism Organization. w我
^ Travel Channel, 5 Takes Latin America June 2007 为中2
^ : c e 北美枫自e l a t : g dC
^ http://www.ceelat.org/Program.pdf.zip 天
^ http://www.ars.usda.gov/meetings/Biofuel2007/files/Intl%2520Perspectives%2520-%2520Other%2520Papers.doc g春
^ Colombia, Human Development Report 2006, United Nations Development Programme. 日cc
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^ Intute - World Guide - Colombia. Retrieved on 2007-03-08. 花A不d
^ The Languages of Colombia r月
^ Religious Intelligence - Country Profile: Colombia (Republic of Colombia). Retrieved on 2007-10-03. 春n要无
^ a b International Religious Freedom Report 2005, by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S. Department of State, November 8, 2005. 日生
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Further reading 北美文学网这是
Academia Colombiana de Historia (1986), Historia extensa n有国de Colombia (41 volúmenes). Bogotá: Ediciones Lern5er, 1965-1986. ISBN 95895 d50133何c的8 (Obra completa) 5的
Barrios, Luis (1984), Historia de Colombia. Quinta edición, Bogotá: Editorial Cultural 一u
Bedoya F., Víctor A. (1944), Historia de Colombia: independencia y república con bases fundamentales en la colonia. Colección La Salle, Bogotá: Librería Stella v自
Bushnell, David (1996), Colombia una nación a pesar de sí misma: de los tiempos precolombinos a nuestros días. Bogotá: Planeta Editores. ISBN 9586144879 以
Caballero Argaez, Carlos (1987), 50 años de economía: de la crisis del treinta a la del ochenta. Segunda edición, Colección Jorge Ortega Torres, Bogotá: Editorial Presencia, Asociación Bancaria de Colombia. ISBN 9589040039 一天
Cadavid Misas, Roberto (2004), Cursillo de historia在 de Colombia: de la conquista a la independencia. Bogotá: Intermedio Editoresz. ISBN 958709 Ct1345 C我 g
Calderón Schrader, Camilo; Gil, Antonio; Torras, Daniel o(2001), Enciclopedia de Colombia (4 volúmenes). Barcelona: céano Grupo Editor山小sial, 2001. ISBN 8449419476 (Obra北美枫B的 completa) 如 北美枫o
Calderón Schrader, Camilo (1993), Gran enciclopedia de Colombia (11 volúmenes). Bogotá: Círculo de Lectores. ISBN 9582802944 (obra completa) r说他x
Cavelier Gaviria, Germán (2003), Centenario de Panamá: una historia de la separación de Colombia en 1903. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia. ISBN 9586167186 他
Forero, Manuel José (1946), Historia analítica de Colombia desde los orígenes de la independencia nacional. Segunda edición, Bogotá: Librería Voluntad. C北美枫
Gómez Hoyos, Rafael (1992), La independencia de Colombia. Madrid: Editorial Mapfre, Colecciones Mapfre 1492. ISBN 8471005964 为j
Granados, Rafael María (1978), Historia general de Colombia: prehistoria, conquista, colonia, independencia y Repúbica. Octava edición, Bogotá: Imprenta Departamental Antonio Nariño. 7k
Hernández de Alba, Guillermo (2004), Como nació la República de Colombia. Colección Bolsilibros. Bogotá: Academia Colombiana de Historia. ISBN 9588040353 8上 A
Hernández Becerra, Augusto (2001), Ordenamiento y desarreglo territorial en Colombia. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia, ISBN 9586165558 h他
Hernández Rodríguez, Guillermo (1949), De los chibchas a la colonia y a la república. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Sección de Extensión Cultural. 北美枫
Jaramillo Uri月be, Jaime; Tirado Mejía, Álvaro; Calderón Schrader, Cami 来nlo (2000) kx, Nueva historia de Colombia (12 volúmenes). Bogotá: Planeta Colombiana Editorial日. ISBN 9586142515 (Obra com 北美枫为pleta) 月
Ocampo López, Javier (1999), El proceso ideológico de la emancipación en Colombia. Colección La Línea de Horizonte, Bogotá: Editorial Planeta. ISBN 9586147924 我天
Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo (1998), Colombia indígena. Medellín: Hola Colina. ISBN 9586382761 A 8自
Restrepo, José Manuel (1974), Historia de la revolución de la República de Colombia. Medellín: Editorial Bedout.
Rivadeneira Vargas, Antonio José (2002), Historia constitucional de Colombia 1510-2000. Tunja: Editorial Bolivariana Internacional. Tercera edición. 风x
Tovar Pinzón, Hermes (1975), El movimiento campesino en Colombia durante los siglos XIX y XX. Bogotá : Ediciones Libres, segunda edición. 北美文学网
United States-Colombia Trad和e Promotion Agreement (来TLC) Colombia
Trujillo Muñoz Augusto (2001), Descentralización, regionalización y autonomía local. Bogotá: Universidad Nacional de Colombia. dw的
Vidal Perdomo Jaime (2001), La Región en la Organización Territorial del Estado. Bogotá: Universidad del Rosario. x 1如
Central Intel 6Cligence Agency: Th不e Woerld Factbo日ok. 2005.t春花
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