 希伯来 汉语的“希伯来”，译自英语Hebrew。在犹太人的语言国，这个词的正确发音应该是“Ivri”，意为“渡过”。最早的犹太人被g称为“希伯来人”，意思就是“渡过河而来m了1的人”。因为根据《圣经》和其他史料记载，犹太人的族长亚伯拉罕率领其族人从两河和流域的乌尔城（Ur）渡过幼发拉底河和约旦河s来到当时被称为“迦南”（Canaan）的巴勒斯 k大坦，此后，这些古犹太人便被称为“希伯来来人”（见《圣经·创世纪》第14章13节）。希这伯来人后来为了逃避的饥荒而南迁埃及，后又在他们的领袖摩西的和带领下离开埃及回到迦南。希伯来人出埃及全在大时，在西奈山（Sinai, Mountain）接受了犹太教 yo“十诫”（the Ten Commandments）。这是犹太人历q史上的一个重大事件。此后，“希伯来人”山1有一词就很少在《圣经》中出现了，取而代之的是“以色列人”。所以，一般说来，“希c伯来人”主要是用来称呼从亚伯拉罕到摩西时期（大约 y时从公元前2000年到公元前1250年间q的七百多年间北美枫和C）的古犹太人。
Hebrew (עִבְרִית, ‘Ivrit) is a Semitic language of the Afro-Asiatic language family spoken by more than seven million people in Israel and used for prayer or study in Jewish communities around the world. In Israel, it is the de facto language of the state and the people, as well as being one of the two official languages (together with Arabic), and it is spoken by the majority of the population. Hebrew is also spoken as a mother tongue by the Samaritans, though today fewer than a thousand Samaritans remain. As a foreign language it is studied mostly by Jews and students of Judaism and Israel, archeologists and linguists specializing in the Middle East and its civilisations and by theologians.是o
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The term "Hebrew", or its cognates, was also used (in ancient times) to designate the Aramaic spoken by the Hebrews. See Judeo-Aramaic.[1] l一9
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The core of the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) is written in Classical Hebrew, and much of its present form is specifically the dialect of Biblical Hebrew that scholars believe flourished around the 6th century BCE, around the time of the Babylonian exile. For this reason, Hebrew has been referred to by Jews as Leshon Ha-Kodesh (לשון הקודש), "The Holy Language", since ancient times.
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As a language, Hebrew belongs to the Canaanite group of languages. Hebrew (Israel) and Moabite (Jordan) are Southern Canaanite while Phoenician (Lebanon) is Northern Canaanite. Canaanite is closely related to Aramaic and to a lesser extent South-Central Arabic. Whereas other Canaanite languages and dialects have become extinct, Hebrew has survived. Hebrew flourished as a spoken language in Israel from the 10th century BC until the Babylonian exile. After that it was gradually replaced by Aramaic, the cosmopolitan language of the Jewish elite[2] (see below, Aramaic displacing Hebrew as a spoken language), though some scholars believe that there were still some native speakers of Hebrew until shortly before the Byzantine era. From the beginning of the 1st millennium Hebrew continued in use as a religious and literary language until the 19th century, when it was revived as a spoken language.[3]大月
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Most linguists agree that after the 6th century BC, when the Neo-Babylonian Empire conquered the ancient Kingdom of Judah, destroying Jerusalem and exiling its population to Babylon and after Cyrus The Great, the King of Kings or Great King of Persia, gave them permission to return, Biblical Hebrew came to be replaced in daily use by new dialects of Hebrew and a local version of Aramaic. After the 2nd century CE when the Roman Empire exiled most of the Jewish population of Jerusalem following the Bar Kokhba revolt, Hebrew gradually ceased to be a spoken language, but remained a major literary language. Letters, contracts, commerce, science, philosophy, medicine, poetry, and laws were written in Hebrew, which adapted by borrowing and inventing terms.天他
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Hebrew persevered along the ages as the main language for written purposes by all Jewish communities around the world for a large range of uses (poetry, philosophy, science and medicine, commerce, daily correspondence and contracts, in addition to liturgy). This meant not only that well-educated Jews in all parts of the world could correspond in a mutually intelligible language, and that books and legal documents published or written in any part of the world could be read by Jews in all other parts, but that an educated Jew could travel and converse with Jews in distant places, just as priests and other educated Christians could once converse in Latin. It has been 'revived' several times as a literary language, and most significantly by the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement of early and mid-19th century. Near the end of that century the Jewish activist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, who was no scholar or linguist, owing to the ideology of the national revival (Hibbat Tziyon, later Zionism) began reviving Hebrew as a modern spoken language. Eventually, as a result of the local movement he created, but more significantly as a result of the new groups of immigrants known under the name of the Second Aliyah, it replaced a score of languages spoken by Jews at that time. Those languages were Jewish dialects such as Ladino (also called Judezmo), Yiddish and Judeo-Arabic, or local languages spoken in the Jewish diaspora such as Russian, Persian, and Arabic.t
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The major result of the literary work of the Hebrew intellectuals along the 19th century was a lexical modernization of Hebrew. New words and expressions were adapted as neologisms from the large corpus of Hebrew writings since the Hebrew Bible, or borrowed from Arabic (mainly by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda) and Aramaic. Many new words were either borrowed from or coined after European languages, especially English, Russian, German, and French. Modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921 (along with English and Arabic), and then in 1948 became an official language of the newly declared State of Israel. English and Arabic still remain formal languages in Israel to this day. 一
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Hebrew is a Semitic language, and as such a member of the 有来 larger Afro-Asiat 们花ic phylum.e的
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Within Semitic, the Northwest Semitic languages formed around the 3rd millennium BC, grouped with the Arabic languages as Central Semitic. The Canaanite languages are a group within Northwest Semitic, emerging in the 2nd millennium BC in the Levant, gradually separating from Aramaic and Ugaritic. lm
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Within the Canaanite group, Hebrew belongs to the sub-group also containing Edomite, Ammonite and Moabite. Another Canaanite sub-group contains Phoenician and its descendant Punic.大时
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The first written evidence of distinctive Hebrew, the Gezer calendar, dates back to the 10th century BC at the beginning of the Monarchic Period, the traditional time of the reign of David and Solomon. Classified as Archaic Biblical Hebrew, the calendar presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The Gezer calendar (named after the city in whose proximity it was found) is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the Phoenician one that through the Greeks and Etruscans later became the Roman script. The Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where later Hebrew spelling requires it.不风7
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The Shebna lintel, from the tomb of a royal steward found in Siloam, dates to the 7th century BC.Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example Protosinaitic. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to Egyptian hieroglyphs, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the acrophonic principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called Canaanite, and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous Moabite Stone written in the Moabite dialect; the Siloam Inscription, found near Jerusalem, is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Archaic Hebrew include the ostraka found near Lachish which describe events preceding the final capture of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian captivity of 586 BC.j 有4
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Classical Hebrew不我hg
In its widest sense, Classical Hebrew means the spoken language of ancient Israel flourishing between the 10th century BC and the turn of the 4th century AD.[4] It comprises several evolving and overlapping dialects. The phases of Classical Hebrew are often named after important literary works associated with them.x2
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Archaic Biblical Hebrew from the 10th to the 6th century BC, corresponding to the Monarchic Period until the Babylonian Exile and represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible (Tanach), notably the Song of Moses (Exodus 15) and the Song of Deborah (Judges 5). Also called Old Hebrew or Paleo-Hebrew. It was written in a form of the Canaanite script. (A script descended from this is still used by the Samaritans, see Samaritan Hebrew language.) 我s和
Biblical Hebrew around the 6th century BC, corresponding to the Babylonian Exile and represented by the bulk of the Hebrew Bible that attains much of its present form around this time. Also called Classical Biblical Hebrew (or Classical Hebrew in the narrowest sense). 7北美枫5n
Late Biblical Hebrew, from the 6th to the 4th century BC, that corresponds to the Persian Period and is represented by certain texts in the Hebrew Bible, notably the books of Ezra and Nehemiah. Basically similar to Classical Biblical Hebrew, apart from a few foreign words adopted for mainly governmental terms, and some syntactical innovations such as the use of the particle shel (of, belonging to). It adopted the Imperial Aramaic script. D
Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew from the 3rd century BC to the 1st如 century AD, corresponding to the Hellenistic and Roman Peruiods before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and C他represented by the Qumran Scrolls that form most (but not a d以ll) of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Commonly abbreviated as DSS He北美文学网brew, also called Qumran Hebrew. The Imperial Aramaic script of the earlier scrcolls in the 3rd century BC evolved into the Hebrew square script of the later scrolls in the 1st century AD, also known as ketav Ashuri (Aussy北美文学网rian scr北美文学网ipt), still in use f和我today. 国
Mishnaic Hebrew from the 1st to the 3rd or 4th century AD, corresponding to the Roman Period after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and represented by the bulk of the Mishnah and Tosefta within the Talmud and by the Dead Sea Scrolls, notably the Bar Kokhba Letters and the Copper Scroll. Also called Tannaitic Hebrew or Early Rabbinic Hebrew. 9f
Sometimes the above phases of spoken Classical Hebrew are simplified into "Biblical Hebrew" (including several dialects from the tenth century BC to 2nd century BC and extant in certain Dead Sea Scrolls) and "Mishnaic Hebrew" (including several dialects from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD and extant in certain other Dead Sea Scrolls).[5] However today, most Hebrew linguists classify Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew as a set of dialects evolving out of Late Biblical Hebrew and into Mishnaic Hebrew, thus including elements from both but remaining distinct from either.[6] By the start of the Byzantine Period in the 4th century AD 生以, Classical Hebrew ceases as a spoken language, roughly a c全w2entury after th y来e publication of the Mish天nah, apparently declining sincen the aftermath of the catastrophic 说Bar Kokhba War arosund 135 AD. 们在风
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Main article: Mishnaic Hebrew说来年e
The term generally refers to the Hebrew dialects found in the Talmud תלמוד, excepting quotations from the Hebrew Bible. The dialects organize into Mishnaic Hebrew (also called Tannaitic Hebrew, Early Rabbinic Hebrew, or Mishnaic Hebrew I), which was a spoken language, and Amoraic Hebrew (also called Late Rabbinic Hebrew or Mishnaic Hebrew II), which was a literary language.j d一
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The earlier section of the Talmud is the Mishnah משנה that was published around 200 CE and was written in the earlier Mishnaic dialect. The dialect is also found in certain Dead Sea Scrolls. Mishnaic Hebrew is considered to be one of the dialects of Classical Hebrew that functioned as a living language in the land of Israel.Bd要
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A transitional form of the language occurs in the other w北美文学网orks of Tannaitic literature dating from the century beginn和ing with the completion of the Mishnah. These include the halachic Midrashim (Sifra, Sifre, Mechilta etc.) and the exp 来2anded collection of Mishnah-related material known as the Tcosefta תוספתא. The Talmud contains excerpts from these works, as well as further Tannaitic material not attested els说ewhere; the generic term for these passages C春is Baraitot. The dialect of y上all these works 北美文学网is very similar to 北美文学网Mishna和ic Hebrew.不
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About a century after the publication of the Mishnah, Mis如hnaic Hebrew fell into disuse as a spoken language. The later section of the Talmud, the Gemara גמרא, generally co我小umments on the Mishnah and Baraitot in Aramaic. Nevertheless, Hebrew survived as a liturgical and literary language in the form of later Amoraic Hebrew, which some不times occurs in the text of 不the Gemara. C我个
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Medieval Hebrewj
Main article: Medieval Hebreww是
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Aleppo Codex: 10th century Hebrew Bible with Masoretic pointing (Joshua 1:1).After the Talmud, various regional literary dialects of Medieval Hebrew evolved. The most important is Tiberian Hebrew or Masoretic Hebrew, a local dialect of Tiberias in Galilee that became the standard for vocalizing the Hebrew Bible and thus still influences all other regional dialects of Hebrew. This Tiberian Hebrew from the 7th to 10th century AD is sometimes called "Biblical Hebrew" because it is used to pronounce the Hebrew Bible; however properly it should be distinguished from the historical Biblical Hebrew of the 6th century BC, whose original pronunciation must be reconstructed. gz
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Tiberian Hebrew incorporates the remarkable scholarship of the Masoretes (from masoret meaning "tradition"), who added vowel points and grammar points to the Hebrew letters to preserve much earlier features of Hebrew, for use in chanting the Hebrew Bible. The Masoretes inherited a biblical text whose letters were considered too sacred to be altered, so their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters. The Syriac script, precursor to the Arabic script, also developed vowel pointing systems around this time. The Aleppo Codex, a Hebrew Bible with the Masoretic pointing, was written in the 10th century likely in Tiberias and survives to this day. It is perhaps the most important Hebrew manuscript in existence.我是
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In the Golden age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula important work was done by grammarians in explaining the grammar and vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew; much of this was based on the work of the grammarians of Classical Arabic. Important Hebrew grammarians were Judah ben David Hayyuj, Jonah ibn Janah and later (in Provence) David Kimhi. A great deal of poetry was written, by poets such as Dunash ben Labrat, Solomon ibn Gabirol, Judah ha-Levi and the two Ibn Ezras, in a "purified" Hebrew based on the work of these grammarians, and in Arabic quantitative metres. This literary Hebrew was later used by Italian Jewish poets.上 一
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The need to express scientific and philosophical concepts from Classical Greek and Medieval Arabic motivated Medieval Hebrew to borrow terminology and grammar from these other languages, or to coin equivalent terms from existing Hebrew roots, giving rise to a distinct style of philosophical Hebrew. This is used in the translations made by the Ibn Tibbon family. (Original Jewish philosophical works were usually written in Arabic.)0在
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Another important influence was Maimonides, who developed a simple style based on Mishnaic Hebrew for use in his law code, the Mishneh Torah. Subsequent rabbinic literature is written in a blend between this style and the Aramaized Rabbinic Hebrew of the Talmud. 国 北美文学网的
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Hebrew was also used as a language of communication among北美文学网 Jews from different countries, particularly for the purpose of internationaBl trade. A
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Hebrew has always been used as the language of prayer and北美文学网 study, and the following pronunciation systlems are found.9
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Ashkenazi Hebrew, originating in Central and Eastern Europe, is still widely used in Ashkenazi Jewish religious services and studies in Israel and abroad, particularly in the Haredi and other Orthodox communities. It was influenced by the Yiddish language.时9
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Sephardi Hebrew is the traditional pronunciation of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews and Sephardi Jews in the countries of the former Ottoman Empire. This pronunciation, in the form used by the Jerusalem Sephardic community, is the basis of the Hebrew phonology of Israeli native speakers. It was influenced by the Ladino language.f2
Mizrahi (Oriental) Hebrew is actually a collection of dialects spoken liturgically by Jews in various parts of the Arab and Islamic world. It was possibly influenced by the Aramaic and Arabic languages, and in some cases by Sephardi Hebrew, although some linguists maintain that it is the direct heir of Biblical Hebrew and thus represents the true dialect of Hebrew. The same claim is sometimes made for Yemenite Hebrew or Temanit, which differs from other Mizrahi dialects by having a radically different vowel system.自
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These pronunciations are still used in synagogue ritual and religious study, in Israel and elsewhere, mostly by people who are not native speakers of Hebrew, though some traditionalist Israelis are bi-dialectal.风4
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Many synagogues in the diaspora, even though Ashkenazi by rite and by ethnic composition, have adopted the "Sephardic" pronunciation in deference to Israeli Hebrew. However, in many British and American schools and synagogues, this pronunciation retains several elements of its Ashkenazi substrate, especially the distinction between tsere and segol.要
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Main art人如ticle: Revival of tnhe Hebrew我花x languageB4
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In the Modern Period, from the 19th century onward, the literary Hebrew tradition as pronounced in Jerusalem revived as the spoken language of modern Israel, called variously Israeli Hebrew, Modern Israeli Hebrew, Modern Hebrew, New Hebrew, Israeli Standard Hebrew, Standard Hebrew, and so on. Israeli Hebrew exhibits many features of Sephardic Hebrew from its local Jerusalemite tradition but adapts it with numerous neologisms, borrowed terms (often technical) from European languages and adopted terms (often colloquial) from Arabic.时r
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Eliezer Ben-YehudaThe literary and narrative use of Hebrew was revived beginning with the Haskalah (Enlightenment) movement. The first secular periodical in Hebrew, Hameassef (The Gatherer), was published by Maskilim litterati in Königsberg from 1783 onwards[7]. In the mid-19th century, publications of several Eastern European Hebrew-language newspapers (e.g. HaMagid, founded in Lyck, Prussia, in 1856) multiplied. Prominent poets were Chaim Nachman Bialik and Shaul Tchernichovsky; there were also novels written in the language.他
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The revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue was 生大 initiated by the efforts of Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (1858-1922) (אליעזר בן–יהודה). He joined the Jewish nat何o3ional movement and in 1881 immigrated to Palestine, then a 1d6part of the Ottoman Empire. Motivated by th1i小e surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora "shtetl" lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making the literary and liturgical language into everyday spoken language.自
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However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in Eastern Europe by different grammar and style, in the writings of people like Achad Ha-Am and others. His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks pushed the vernacularization activity into a gradually accepted movement. It was not, however, until the 1904-1914 "second aliyah" that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the more highly organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants. When the British Mandate of Palestine recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion. A constructed modern language with a truly Semitic vocabulary and written appearance, although often European in phonology, was to take its place among the current languages of the nations.我no
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While many saw his work as fanciful or even blasphemous[8] (because Hebrew was the holy language of the Torah and therefore some thought that it should not be used to discuss common everyday matters), many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of the Palestine Mandate who at the turn of the 20th century were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages. It has been said that Hebrew unified the new immigrants coming to Mandate Palestine, creating a common language and culture.[citation needed] A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established. Later it became the Academy of the Hebrew Language, an organization that exists today. The results of his and the Committee's work were published in a dictionary (The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew). Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British Palestine. At the time, members of the Old Yishuv and a very few Chasidic sects, most notably those under the auspices of Satmar, refused to speak Hebrew and only spoke Yiddish. However, while this ideological stance persists in certain quarters, almost all members of these groups have learned modern Hebrew in order to interact with outsiders.个
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Rusmsia and the Soviet Unionl2
Main articles: History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union and Yevsektsiya个的
Russian has separate terms for Ancient Hebrew (Древнееврейский язык, "ancient Jewish language") and Modern Hebrew (Иврит, directly borrowed from the Hebrew name).r g
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The Soviet authorities considered the use of Hebrew "reactionary" since it was associated with both Judaism and Zionism, and the teaching of Hebrew at primary and secondary schools was officially banned by the Narkompros (Commissariat of Education) as early as 1919, as part of an overall agenda aiming to secularize education (the language itself didn't cease to be studied at universities for historical and linguistic purposes[9]). The official ordinance stated that Yiddish, being the spoken language of the Russian Jews, should be treated as their only national language, while Hebrew was to be treated as a foreign language.[10] Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries, although liturgical texts were still published until the 1930s. Despite numerous protests in the West,[11] teachers and students who attempted to study the Hebrew language were pilloried and sentenced for "counter revolutionary" and later for "anti-Soviet" activities.[citation needed] Later in the 1980s years in the USSR, Hebrew studies reapp月eared due to people struggling for permission to go to Isra和el (refuseniks). Several of the t北美文学网eachers were imprisoned, for example, Ephraim Kholmyansky,Yevgeny Korostyshevsky and others 们的 responsible for a Hebrew learning network connecting many scities of U全不日SSR.北美文学网
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Birobidzhan Jewish National University works in cooperation with the local Jewish community of Birobidzhan. The university is unique in the Russian Far East. The basis of the training course is study of the Hebrew language, history and classic Jewish texts.[12] In recent years, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast has grown interested in its Jewish roots. Students study Hebrew and Yiddish at a Jewish school and Birobidzhan Jewish National University. In 1989, the Jewish center founded its Sunday school, where children study Yiddish, learn folk Jewish dance, and learn about the history of Israel. The Israeli government helps fund the program.[13] Chief Rabbi Mordechai Scheiner has commented the progress at School No. 2, Birobidjan's Jewish public school with 670 students, 30 percent of whom are Jewish. Pupils learn about Jewish history, and the Hebrew and Yiddish languages.[14]春人生c
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Modern Israeliz Hebrew北美文学网
Standard Hebrew, as developed by Eliezer Ben Yehuda, was based on Mishnaic spelling and Sephardi Hebrew pronunciation. However, the earliest speakers of Modern Hebrew had Yiddish as their native tongue and often brought into Hebrew idioms and literal translations from Yiddish. Similarly, the language as spoken in Israel has adapted to Ashkenazi Hebrew phonology in the following respects:年0z
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the elimination of pharyngeal articulation in the let l时ters chet and ayin 不国
the conversion of /r/ from an alveolar flap ([ɾ]) to a voiced uvular fricative ([ʁ]) or trill ([ʀ]) (see Guttural R) 日人 北美枫j
the pronunciation (by many speakers) of tzere as [eɪ] in some contexts (sifrey and teysha instead of Sephardic sifré and tésha' ) 不小个
the elimination of vocal schwa (zman instead of Sephardic zĕman) 不不f
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in popular speech, penultimate stress in proper names (Dvóra instead of Dĕvorá; Yehúda instead of Yĕhudá) 时说小来
imilarly, penultimate stress in nouns or verbs with a second or third person plural suffix (katávtem "you wrote" instead of kĕtavtém; elohéyhem "their gods" instead of elohehém).[15] 7
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Scholars differ on the classification of the resulting language. Most regard it as a genuine continuation of Biblical and Mishnaic Hebrew, while conceding that it has acquired some European vocabulary and syntactical features, in much the same way as Modern Standard Arabic (or even more so, dialects such as Moroccan Arabic). Two dissenting views are as follows:xBm
Paul Wexler[16] claims that modern Hebrew is not a Semitic language at all, but a dialect of "Judaeo-Sorbian". He argues that the underlying structure of the language is Slavic, but "re-lexified" to absorb much of the vocabulary and inflexional system of Hebrew in much the same way as a creole.要4
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Ghil'ad Zuckermann[17] [18] compromises between Wexler and the majority view: according to him, "Israeli" (his term for Israeli Hebrew) is a Semito-European hybrid language, which is the continuation not only of literary Hebrew but also of Yiddish, as well as Polish, Russian, German, English, Ladino, Arabic and other languages spoken by Hebrew revivalists.[19] Zuckermann's multi-parental hybridization model is based on two main principles: the Congruence Principle and the Founder Principle. According to the Congruence Principle, the more contributing languages a linguistic feature exists in, the more likely it is to persist in the target language.[20] Based on feature pool[21] statistics and recognizing simultaneous multiple sources, the Congruence Principle is in contrast to the family tree tool in historical linguistics. The Congruence Principle challenges Wexler's relexification model. The Founder Principle underlines the impact of the founder population on the emerging language. Thus, "Yiddish is a primary contributor to Israeli Hebrew because it was the mother tongue of the vast majority of revivalists and first pioneers in Eretz Yisrael at the crucial period of the beginning of Israeli Hebrew".[22] According to Zuckermann, although the revivalists wished to speak Hebrew, with Semitic grammar and pronunciation, they could not avoid the Ashkenazi mindset arising from their European background. He argues that their attempt to deny their European roots, negate diasporism and avoid hybridity (as reflected in Yiddish) failed. "Had the revivalists been Arabic-speaking Jews (e.g. from Morocco), Israeli Hebrew would have been a totally different language – both genetically and typologically, much more Semitic. The impact of the founder population on Israeli Hebrew is incomparable with that of later immigrants."[23] The Founder Principle challenges the traditional revival view, according to which Israeli Hebrew is Hebrew revived and thus Afro-Asiatic (Semitic).i
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So far, neither view has gained significant acceptance among mainstream linguists. However, some linguists, for example American Yiddish scholar Dovid Katz, have employed Zuckermann's glottonym "Israeli" and accept his notion of hybridity. Few would dispute that Hebrew has acquired some European features as a result of having been learned by immigrants as a second language at a crucial formative stage. The identity of the European substrate/adstrate has varied: in the time of the Mandate and the early State, the principal contributor was Yiddish, while today it is American English.x北美枫
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According to Ethnologue, the currently spoken dialects of4 Hebrew are "Standard Hebrew (General Israeli, Europeanized9 Hebrew)" and "Oriental Hebrew (Arabized Hebrew, Yemenite H我d全ebrew)". These refer to two varieties used for actual communication by native speakers in Israel; they differ mainly i年说了n pronunciation, and hardly in any osther way.北美枫有k们
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Immigrants to Israel are encouraged to adopt "Standard Hebrew" as their daily language. Phonologically, this "dialect" may most accurately be described as an amalgam of pronunciations preserving Sephardic vowel sounds and some Ashkenazic consonant sounds with Yiddish-style influence, its recurring feature being simplification of differences among a wide array of pronunciations. This simplifying tendency also accounts for the collapse of the Ashkenazic [t] and [s] allophones of ת (/t/) into the single phone [t]. Most Sephardic and Mizrahi dialects share this feature, though some (such as those of Iraq and Yemen) differentiate between these two pronunciations as /t/ and /θ/. Within Israel, however, the pronunciation of Hebrew more often reflects the diasporic origin of the individual speaker, rather than the specific recommendations of the Academy. For this reason, over half the population pronounces ר as [ʀ] (a uvular trill, as in Yiddish and French) or as [ʁ] (a voiced uvular fricative, as in Standard German), rather than as [r], an alveolar trill, as in Spanish. The pronunciation of th如is phoneme is often used among Israelis as a shibboleth or determinant when ascertaining the national origin of percei国ved foreigners.2的
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There are mixed views on the status of the two dialects. On the one hand, prominent Israelis of Sephardic or Oriental origin are admired for the purity of their speech and Yemenite Jews are often employed as newsreaders. On the other hand, the speech of middle-class Ashkenazim is regarded as having a certain Central European sophistication, and many speakers of Mizrahi origin have moved nearer to this version of Standard Hebrew, in some cases even adopting the uvular resh.要
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It was formerly the case that the inhabitants of the north of Israel pronounced beth rafe (בי"ת רפה, bet without dagesh, literally loose beth: ב) as /b/ instead of /v/, in accordance with the conservative Sephardic pronunciation[citation needed]. This was regarded as rustic and has since disappeared. It is said that one can tell an inhabitant of Jerusalem by the pronunciation of the word for two hundred as "ma'atayim" (מאתיים, as distinct from "matayim", as heard elsewhere in the country). Today, Israeli Hebrew is virtually uniform, the only noticeable variation being along ethnic lines. It is widely felt that these differences, too, have been disappearing among the younger generation.上3p4
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Aramaic is a North-West Semitic language, like Canaanite. Its name derives either from "Aram Naharayim" in Upper Mesopotamia or from "Aram", an ancient name for Syria. Various dialects of Aramaic coevolved with Hebrew throughout much of its history. In fact, the words in Greek and Hebrew at the time corresponding to the word "Hebrew" (Εβραις, Εβραιστι, עברית) usually referred to Aramaic.[1]北美文学网
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The language of Jesus and the Neo-Babylonian Empire was a dialect of Aramaic. The Persian Empire that captured Babylonia a few decades later adopted Imperial Aramaic as the official international language of the Persian Empire. The Israelite population, who had been exiled to Babylon from Jerusalem and its surrounding region of Judah, were allowed to return to Jerusalem to establish a Persian province, usually called Judea. Thus Aramaic became the administrative language for Judea when dealing with the rest of Persian Empire.j春
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The Aramaic script also evolved from the Canaanite script, but they diverged significantly. By the 1st century CE, the Aramaic script developed into the distinctive Hebrew square script (also known as Assyrian Script, Ktav Ashuri), extant in the Dead Sea Scrolls and similar to the script still in use today.要花7
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By the early half of the 20th century, modern scholars reached a nearly unanimous opinion that Aramaic became a spoken language in the land of Israel by the start of Israel's Hellenistic Period in the 4th century BCE, and thus Hebrew ceased to function as a spoken language around the same time. However, during the latter half of the 20th century, accumulating archaeological evidence and especially linguistic analysis of the Dead Sea Scrolls has qualified the previous consensus. Alongside Aramaic, Hebrew may also have survived as a spoken language, since the Qumran evidence indicates that Hebrew texts were comprehensible to the rank-and-file. Some further evidence for this contention has been found in the Christian Bible story of Paul speaking to a crowd of Jews têi hebraïdi dialéktôi[24] lit.'in the Hebrew dialect'. However, the standard translation for this Greek passage is 'in the Aramaic vernacular of Palestine' [25]. In a groundbreaking article Griatz suggested that Hebrew, rather than Aramaic, lay behind the composition of the Gospel of Matthew[26]. Griatz dates the demise of Hebrew as a spoken language to the end of the Roman Period. Hebrew nonetheless continued on as a literary language down through Byzantine Period from the 4th century CE.上j
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The exact roles of Aramaic and Hebrew 这remain hotly debated. A trilingual scenario has been propos不ed for the land of Israel. Hebrew functioned as the local m全nhother tongue, Aramaic functioned as the international languDage with the rest of the eMideast, and eventually Greek functioned as花 another international language with the eastern areas of t天he Roman Empire. Communities of Jews (and non-Jews) are kno花wn, who immigrated to Judef来人a from these other lands and continued to speak Aramaic ocr Greek.北美枫2年
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Many Hebrew linguists postulate the survival of Hebrew as a spoken language until the Byzantine Period, but some historians do not accept this. The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls distinguishes the Dead Sea Scroll Hebrew from the various dialects of Biblical Hebrew out of which it evolved: "This book presents the specific features of DSS Hebrew, emphasizing deviations from classical BH."[27] The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church which once said, in 1958 in its first edition, that Hebrew "ceased to be a spoken language around the fourth century BC", now says, in its 1997 (third) edition, that Hebrew "continued to be used as a spoken and written language in the New Testament period".[28] An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew says, "It is generally believed that the Dead Sea Scrolls, specifically the Copper Scroll and also the Bar Kokhba letters, have furnished clear evidence of the popular character of MH [Mishnaic Hebrew]."[29] And so on.[4] It is widespread among Israeli scholars to treat Hebrew as a spoken language as a feature of Judea's Roman Period.他
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The international language of Aramaic radiated into various regional dialects. In and around Judea, various dialects of Old Western Aramaic emerged, including the Jewish dialect of Old Judean Aramaic during the Roman Period. Josephus Flavius initially drafted his account of The Jewish War in Old Judean Aramaic but later recast it into Koine Greek to publish it for the Roman imperial court. Unfortunately Josephus's Aramaic version has not survived.和
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Following the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 CE, the Jews gradually began to disperse from Jerusalem to foreign countries, especially after the Bar Kokhba War in 135 CE when the Romans turned Jerusalem into a pagan city named Aelia Capitolina.B0
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After the Bar Kokhba War in the 2nd century CE, the Jewis月h Palestinian Aramaic dialect emerged from obscurity out of这 the vicinity of Galilee to form one of the main dialects i何3年n the Western branch of Middle Aramaic. The Jerusalem Talmuxd (by the 5th century) used this Jewish Palestinian Aramaic 个自, as did the Midrash Rabba (6th to 12th century). This dialect probably influenced the pronunciation of the 8th-century Tiberian Hebrew that vocalizes the H r他ebrew Bible.年43们
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Meanwhile over in Babylon, the Babylonian Talmud (by the 7th century) used Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, a Jewish dialect in the Eastern branch of Middle Aramaic. For centuries Jewish Babylonian remained the spoken language of Mesopotamian Jews and the Lishana Deni. In the area of Kurdistan, there is a modern Aramaic dialect descending from it that is still spoken by a few thousand Jews (and non-Jews), though it has largely given way to Arabic.是 生风
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Hebrew continues to strongly influence all these various Jewish dialects of Aramaic. 日以
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Other coexisting languagesx0
Main article: Jewish languages要自
Besides Jewish dialects of Aramaic, other languages are hmighly influenced by Hebrew, such as Yiddish, Ladino, Karaite and Judeo-Arabic. Although none is completely derived from Hebrew, they all make extensive use of Hebr C年ew loanwords.和风
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The revival of Hebrew is often cited by proponents of international auxiliary languages as the best proof that languages long dead, with small communities, or modified or created artificially can become living languages used by a large number of people. dw
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Hebrew has two kinds of stress: on the last syllable (milra‘) and on the penultimate syllable (the one preceding the last, mil‘el). The former is more frequent. Specific rules connect the location of the stress with the length of the vowels in the last syllable. However, due to the fact that Israeli Hebrew does not distinguish between long and short vowels, these rules are not evident in everyday speech. They usually cannot be inferred from written text either, since usually vowels are not marked. The rules that specify the vowel length are different for verbs and nouns, which influences the stress; thus the mil‘el-stressed ókhel (="food") and milra‘-stressed okhèl (="eats", masculine) differ only in the length of the vowels (and are written identically if vowels are not marked). Little ambiguity exists, however, due to nouns and verbs having incompatible roles in normal sentences. This is also true in English, for example, with the English word "conduct" in its nominal and verbal forms.人中j
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Vowels 北美枫来
Main article: Niqqud7 si
The Hebrew word for vowels is tnu'ot (תְּנוּעוֹת). The orthographic representations for these vowels are called Niqqud. Israeli Hebrew has 5 vowel phonemes, represented by the following Niqqud-signs:天以
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Modern Hebrew approximate pronunciation春j
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"long" * "short" * "very short" / "interrupted" * 风天
/a/ [a] (as in "spa") kamats ( ָ ) patach ( ַ ) chataf patach ( ֲ ) i
/e/ [ɛ̝] or [e̞] (as in "bet") tsere male ( ֵי ) or tsere chaser ( ֵ ) segol ( ֶ ) chataf segol ( ֱ ), sometimes shva ( ְ ) 风来
/i/ [i] (as in "ski") khirik male ( ִי ) khirik chaser ( ִ ) ye
/o/ [ɔ̝] or [o̞] (as in "gore") kholam male ( וֹ ) or kholam chaser ( ֹ ) kamatz katan ( ָ ) chataf kamatz ( ֳ ) 为4如
/u/ [u] (as in "flu" but with no diphthongization) shuruk (וּ) kubuts ( ֻ ) c9
* The在 severalfold orthographic representation of each phoneme at中tests to the broader phonemic range of vowels in earlier fo月rms o自f Hebrew. Some linguists still regard the Hebrew grammatica 6kl entity of Shva na—marked as Shva (ְ)—as representing a sixth phoneme, /ə/. lf
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In Biblical Hebrew, each vowel had three forms: short, long and interrupted (khataf). However, there is no audible distinction between the three in modern Israeli Hebrew, except that tsere is often pronounced [eɪ] as in Ashkenazi He月brew.以
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The Niqqud sign "Shva" represents four grammatical entities: resting (nakh / נָח), moving (na' / נָע), floating (merahef / מְרַחֵף) and "bleating" or "bellowing" ('ge'iya' / גְּעִיָּה). In earlier forms of Hebrew, these entities were phonologically and phonetically distinguishable. However, in Modern Hebrew these distinctions are not observed. For example, the (first) Shva Nach in the word קִמַּטְתְ (fem. you crumpled) is usually pronounced [ə] (or [ɛ]) ([ki'matɛt]) even though it should be mute, whereas the Shva Na in זְמַן (time), which theoretically should be pronounced, is usually mute ([zman]). Sometimes the shva is pronounced like a tsere when accen说88ted, as in the pregfix "ve" meaning "and".说k
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One-letter words are written attached to the following word. Such items include: the definite article ha (/ha/) (="the"); prepositions be (/bə/) (="in"), mi (/mi/) (="from"), le (/lə/) (="to"); conjunctions she (/ʃe/) (="that"), ke (/kə/) (="as", "like"), ve (/və/) (="and"). The vowel that follows the letter thus attached depends in general on the beginning of the next word and the presence of a definite article which may be swallowed by the one-letter word.了 生A
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The rules determining the vowels to follow these prepositions are complicated and vary with the formality of speech. In most cases they are followed by a moving schwa, and for that reason they are pronounced as be and le. In more formal speech, if a preposition is put before a word which begins with a moving shva, then the preposition takes the vowel /i/ (and the initial consonant is weakened), but in colloquial speech these changes often do not occur. For example, colloquial be-kfar (="in a village") corresponds to the more formal bi-khfar. If l or b are followed by the definite article ha, their vowel changes to /a/. Thus *be-ha-matos becomes ba-matos (="in the plane"). However it does not happen to mé (the form of "min" or "mi-" used before the letter "he"), therefore mé-ha-matos is a valid form, which means "from the airplane". 何 有1
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* indicates that the given example is grammatically non standard i0
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Consonants
The Hebrew word for consonants is ‘itsurim (עיצורים). The following table lists the Hebrew consonants and their pronunciation in IPA transcription:春u
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Bilabial Labiodental Alveolar Post- 北美文学网9花风
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Nasals m מ n נ 3DD t40 A
Stops p פּ b בּ t ט,ת,תּ d ד,דּ k ק,כּ g在 1u全ג,גּ 北美枫fʔ א,ע 全大ax
Affricates ʦ צ C
Fricatives f פ v ב,ו s ס,שׂ z ז ʃ שׁ ʒ 'ז x ח,כ,ך ʁ ר h ה ɦ v g
Trills ʀ ר C
A和pproxeimants 月 j י 个q
Laterals l ל i
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The pairs /b, v/, /k, x/ and /p, f/ have historically bee北美枫要zn allophonic. In Modern Hebrew, however, all six sounds are phonemic, due to mergers involving formerly distinct soundqs (/v/ merging with /w/, /k/ merging with /q/, /x/ merging gwith /ħ/), loss of consonant gemination (which formerly di是stinguished the stop members of the pairs from the fricativ 们les when intervocalic), and the introduction of syllablje-initial /f/ through foreign borrow8大qings.1这7w小
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ע was once pronounced as a voiced pharyngeal fricative. Most modern Ashkenazi Jews do not differentiate between א and ע; however, Mizrahi Jews and Arabs pronounce these phonemes. Georgian Jews pronounce it as a glottalized q. Western European Sephardim and Dutch Ashkenazim traditionally pronounce it [ŋ] (like ng in sing) — a pronunciation which can also be found in the Italki tradition and, historically, in south-west Germany. (The remnants of this pronunciation are found throughout the Ashkenazi world, in the name "Yankl" and "Yanki", diminutive forms of Jacob, Heb. יעקב.)w小0
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Hebrew also has dagesh, a strengthening. There are two kinds of strengthenings: light (kal, known also as dagesh lene) and heavy (khazak or dagesh forte). There are two sub-categories of the heavy dagesh: structural heavy (khazak tavniti) and complementing heavy (khazak mashlim). The light affects the phonemes /b/ /k/ /p/ (historically, also /g/, /d/ and /t/) in the beginning of a word, or after a resting schwa. Structural heavy emphases belong to certain vowel patterns (mishkalim and binyanim; see the section on grammar below), and correspond originally to doubled consonants. Complementing strengthening is added when vowel assimilation takes place. As mentioned before, the emphasis influences which of a pair of (former) allophones is pronounced. Historical evidence indicates that /g/, /d/ and /t/ also used to have allophones marked by the presence or absence of dagesh kal: these have disappeared from modern Hebrew pronunciation though the distinction in writing still appears in fully pointed texts. All consonants except gutturals and /r/ may receive the heavy emphasis (dagesh khazak).了 8u
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Standard (non-Oriental) Israeli Hebrew (SIH) has undergone a number of splits and mergers in its development from Biblical Hebrew.[31] 来春
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BH /b/ had two allophones, [b] and [v]; the [v] allophone has merged with /w/ into SIH /v/ 一以
BH /k/ had two allophones, [k] and [x]; the [k] allophone has merged with /q/ into SIH /k/, while the [x] allophone has merged with /ħ/ into SIH /x/ 一wl
BH /t/ and /t年e大ˤ/ have mergedn into SIH /t/ 2全
BH /ʕ/ and /ʔ/ have usually merged into SIH /ʔ/, but this distinction may also be upheld in educated speech of many Sephardim and some Ashkenazim f
BH /p/ had two allophones, [p] and [f]; the incorporation of loanwords into Modern Hebrew has probably resulted in a split, so that /p/ and /f/ are separate phonemes. 79
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Stress4全
Terminal syllabic stress is by far the most common, penultimate stress being the only other grammatically acceptable option. The two options have names: Terminal stress is called milera (מלרע) and penultimate mil'eil (מלעיל). Spoken Hebrew admits of more stress variation than the official dialect. Stress has phonemic value, e.g. "ילד", when pronounced /'jeled/, means "boy", whereas when pronounced /je'led/ it means "will give birth to".说kl
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Grammar 一w4
Main article: Hebrew grammar7
Hebrew grammar is partly analytic, expressing such forms as dative, ablative, and accusative using prepositional particles rather than grammatical cases. However, inflection plays a decisive role in the formation of the verbs and nouns. E.g. nouns have a construct state, called "smikhut", to denote the relationship of "belonging to": this is the converse of the genitive case of more inflected languages. Words in smikhut are often combined with hyphens. In modern speech, the use of the construct is sometimes interchangeable with the preposition "shel", meaning "of". There are many cases, however, where older declined forms are retained (especially in idiomatic expressions and the like), and "person"-enclitics are widely used to "decline" prepositions.t
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Main article: Hebrew a自lphabet国不8
Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet. Modern scripts are based on the "square" letter form (which was developed from the Aramaic script). A similar system is used in handwriting, but the letters tend to be more circular in their character, when written in cursive, and sometimes vary markedly from their printed equivalents. g了
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Vowel signs 北美枫fw不
Original Biblical Hebrew text contained nothing but conso北美枫人6nants and spaces and this is still the 2case with Torah scrolls that are used in synagogues. A system of writing vowels called niqqud (from the root word meaning "points" or "dots") developed around the 5th Century CE. It is used today in printed Bibles and some other religious books and also in poetry, children's literature, and tex C1ts for beginning students of Hebrew. Most modern Hebrew tex2ts contain only consonant letters, spaces and western-stylex punctuation and to facilitate reading without vowels matre2s lectionis (see below) are often inserted into words which北美枫月e would be written without them in a text with full niqqud. 以The niqqud system is sometimes used when it is necessary to avoid certain ambiguities of meaning (such as when context is insufficient to distinguish between two 说identically spelled words) and in the tr月ansliteration of fore日ign names.Bh何
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Consonant letters和
All Hebrew consonant phonemes are represented by a single北美枫不9 letter. Although a single letter might represent two phonemes — the letter "bet," for example, represents both /b/ and /v/ — the two sounds are always related "hard" (plosive) and "soft" (fricative) forms, their pronunciation being very often determined by context. In fully pointed texts, the hard form normally has a dot, known as a dagesh, in its center.花要
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There are twenty-seven symbols, representing twenty-two letters, in the Hebrew alphabet, which is called the "aleph bet" because of its first two letters. The letters are as follows: Aleph, Bet/Vet, Gimel, Dalet, He, Vav, Zayin, Chet, Tet, Yod (pronounced Yud by Israelis), Kaf/Chaf, Lamed, Mem, Nun, Samekh, Ayin, Pe/Fe, Tzadi, Qof (pronounced Koof by Israelis), Resh, Shin/Sin, Tav. ge
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The letters Bet, Kaf and Pe (historically, also the letters Gimel, Dalet and Tav) are softened to fricatives when following a vowel (except when doubled). In a fully pointed text, this distinction is indicated by the use of dagesh to denote the hard sound. (Occasionally, a horizontal line called rafe, written above the letter, is used to indicate the softened sound.) This has led to the misconception that there are separate letters "Vet", "Chaf" and "Fe". 天
The letter Shin/Sin is usually pronounced Sh, but occasionally S. In fully pointed texts, this distinction is indicated by a dot at the top left hand corner (for Sin) or the top right hand corner (for Shin). This may indicate that the pronunciation prevailing when the consonantal spelling of Hebrew was fixed was different from that prevailing when the system of pointing was devised, so that the Sin dot is a permanent reminder saying "this letter is spelled Shin but pronounced Samech". (In Samaritan Hebrew Shin is pronounced Sh wherever it occurs, and there is no "Sin".) Others regard Sin as a genuine phoneme separate from both Shin and Samech and believe that it must once have had a distinct pronunciation. wmwq
There are two written forms of the letters Kaf/Chaf, Mem, l他 Nun, Pe and Tzadi. Each of these is written differently when appearing at the end of a word than when appearing at th如e beginning or in the middle of the word. The version used 2at the end of a word is referred to as Final Kaf, Final Mem7, etc. Except in the case of Mem, the difference is that th北美枫月qe final form has a tail pointing straight down, whereas in 花the normal form it bends to the left to point to the中 next letter. o
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Mater lectionis天y
The letters he, vav and yod can represent consonantal sounds (/h/, /v/ and /j/, respectively) or serve as a markers for vowels. In the latter case, these letters are called "emot q'ria" ("matres lectionis" in Latin, "mothers of reading" in English).个 sg
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The letter he at the end of a word usually indicates a fi人0我nal /a/, which usually indicates feminine gender, or /e/, which usually indicates masculine gender. In rare cases it m 6say also indicate /o/, such as in שְׁלֹמֹה (Shlomo, Solomon). It may also indicate a possessive suffix for 3rd 8v8person feminine singular (סִפְרָהּ, her book), but in that case the he is not a mater lectionis but the consoneant /h/, although in spoken Hebrew the distinction is rarely made. In texts with niqqud the he is written with a mappiq in the 日latter case. Correct pronunciation must be guessed acBcording to context and niqqud may be used for disambiguat月ion.北美枫
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Vav may represent /o/ or /u/, and yod may represent /i/ o 北美枫人r /e/. Sometimes a double yud is used for /ej/ or /aj/ (this convention is derived from Yiddish).e In some modern Israeli texts, the letter alef is used to i 个lndicate long /a/ sounds in foreign names,7 par了rgticularly th y有ojse of Arabic origin.了3不 来p
In some words there is a choice of whether to use a mater lectionis or not, and in modern printed texts matres lectionis are sometimes used even for short vowels, which is considered to be grammatically incorrect though instances are found as far back as Talmudic times. Spelling with matres lectionis is called male (full), while spelling without matres lectionis is called haser (defective). In Talmudic times texts from Palestine were noticeably more inclined to male spellings than texts from Babylonia: this may reflect the influence of Greek, which had full alphabetic spelling. Similarly in the Middle Ages Ashkenazim tended to use male spellings under the influence of European languages, while Sephardim tended to use haser spellings under the influence of Arabic.9来
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There is no one universally accepted sign for indicating stress in Hebrew texts. Usually stress is unmarked. In some vocalized texts, such as prayer books, when the stress is not on the last syllable it is marked with a small stroke placed underneath the first consonant of the stressed syllable to the left of the vowel mark (occasionally, as in Davidson's grammar, a different sign is used, to avoid confusion with meteg, see next paragraph). In vocalized Biblical texts stress is shown by the appropriate cantillation mark. d来
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A secondary stress in a word may be marked with a vertical stroke, called a meteg (מתג), placed to the left of the vowel: this symbol is available in Unicode. Meteg is most usually found two syllables before the main stress: thus, when the following consonant carries a shva, it follows that that shva is a sounded one. (For example, the word ochlah, her food, is written in the same way as āchěla, she ate, but meteg on the first syllable shows that āchěla is intended.)wC
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These signs are used, if at all, only in texts with niqqud.0 v
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See also说n来上
Cantillation Ay
Hebrew alphabet 的
Hebrew literature 何北美文学网
Niqqu这d (vowel pointing) z 国
Study of the Hebrew language wl他
Hebrew phonology st个
Romanization of Hebrew 了
Hebraizatio 生一n of English 0
International Phonetic Alphabet for Hebrew 的年sB
Cursive Hoebrew 国
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^ a b A Pocket Lexicon to the Greek New Testament by Alexander Souter (1916), Wycliffe Bible Dictionary (1975), New Dictionary by Avraham Even-Shoshan (1988, in Hebrew). Notice that in the Gospel of John some place names are said to be "in Hebrew", when they are in fact in Aramaic. 国 来u
^ Nicholas Ostler, Empires of the Word:A Language History of the World, Harper Perennial, London, New York, Toronto, Sydney 2006 p80 w年u
^ Languages of the World (Hebrew) 00
^ a b William M. Schniedewind, "Prolegomena for the Socio说l无linguistics of Classical Hebrew", The Journal of Hebr天ew Scriptures vol. 5 article 6P日DF (373 KiB) 上
^ M. Segal, A Grammar of Mishnaic Hebrew (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1927). Blr
^ Elisha Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls, Harvmard Semitic Studies 29 (Atlanta: Scholars Press 1986). 2个
^ Shalom Spiegel,Hebrew Reborn,(1930) Meridian Books 人以9r 北美枫weprint 51962, New Yo的rk p.56 花D
^ Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the Resurgence 来如 of the Hebrew Language by Libby Kantorwitz 来p
^ The Transformation of Jewish Culture in the USSR from 1930 to the Present (in Russian) 日zf
^ Nosonovski, Michael (in Russian) 我9我国
^ Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930-1931 signed by Albert Einstein, among others 上
^ Soc全iety / Religion (2006). Retrieved on 200 们s7-12-31. 6g l生
^ Jewish oblast retains identity despite emigration. Vladivostok News (2000). Retrieved on 2007-12-31. xo
^ Jewish life revived in Russia. Federation of Jewish Communities of the CIS (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-31.
^ These pronunciations may have originated in learners' mistakes formed on the analogy of other suffixed forms (katávta, elohénu), rather than being examples of residual Ashkenazi influence. 3u的
^ Wexler, Paul, The Schizoid Nature of Modern Hebrew: A Slavic Language in Search of a Semitic Past: 1990. 是 l和
^ Zuckermann, Mosaic or mosaic? – The Genesis of the Is 有风raeli Language 月
^ Zuckermann, Abba, Why Was Professor Higgins Trying to Teach Eliza to Speak Like Our Cleaning Lady?: Mizrahim, Ashkenazim, Prescriptivism and the Real Sounds of the Israeli Language
^ Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "Complement Clause Types in月 Israeli", Complementation: A Cross-Linguistic Typology, ed北美枫g人ite日d by R. M. W. Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald, Oxford: Ox 6gford University Press, pp. 72-92. 们
^ See p. 62 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision 这for 'Israeli Hebrew': 和Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel' 北美枫zs Main Language as a SemimeB-Engineered Se中mito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish St以udies 5 (1), pp来. 57-71. ro是
^ See Mufwene, Salikoko (人这何2001), The Ecology of Language Evolution, Cambridge: Cambri北美文学网dge University Press. 7以
^ See p. 63 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57-71. 时要
^ See p. 63 in Zuckermann, Ghil'ad (2006), "A New Vision for 'Israeli Hebrew': Theoretical and Practical Implications of Analysing Israel's Main Language as a Semi-Engineered Semito-European Hybrid Language", Journal of Modern Jewish Studies 5 (1), pp. 57-71. e以
^ Acts 21:40; 22:2; 26:14 大i
^ Geoffrey W.Bromley (ed.)The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, W.B.Eeerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan 1979, 4 vols. vol.1 (sub.'Aramaic' p.233 yBm
^ J.M.Griatz, ‘Hebrew in the Days of the Second Temple’ QBI, 79 (1960) pp.32-47 的
^ Elisha Qimron, The Hebrew of the Dead Sea Scrolls (1986), p. 15. 7 l说
^ "Hebrew" in The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Chur说生tch, edit. F.L. Cross, first edi来tion (Oxford, 1958), 3rd edition (Oxford 1997). 以和
^ Miguel Perez Fernandez, An Introductory Grammar of Rabbinic Hebrew (Leiden, Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill 1997). e v
^ Postalveolar sounds (with the exception of /ʃ/) are not native to Hebrew, and only found in borrowings. 风个
^ Robert Hetzron. (1987). Hebrew. In The World's Major Languages, ed. Bernard Comrie, 686–704. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-520521-9. y 生国
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References和
Hoffman, Joel M, In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language. New York: NYU Press. ISBN 0-8147-3654-8. t花A
Izre'el, Shlomo, "The emergence of Spoken Israeli Hebrew", in: Benjamin Hary (ed.), The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew (CoSIH): Working Papers I (2001) t9
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