 印度共和国（The Republic of India）.代码INhz9
【国旗】 呈长方形，长与宽之比说人w为3∶2。自上而下由橙、白、绿三个相等的横何人时长方形组成，白色长方形中心绘有２４根轴条的蓝色法轮。橙色象征勇敢和自我牺牲精神，也是教士法衣的颜色，舍身为国的英雄c们的颜色；白色象征纯洁的真理；绿色表示信心，代表人类生命所依存的生产力。法轮北美文学网是印度孔雀王朝阿育王时代佛教圣地石柱柱这头的狮首图案之一，对于印度人而言，它是l神圣之轮、真理之轮、向着进步转动之轮，永远轮回苍穹g之轮。 北美文学网k
【国徽】 图案来源于孔雀王朝阿育王石柱顶端的石刻。圆形台基上站立着四只金色的狮子，象征信心、勇气和力量。台基四周有四个守卫四方的守兽：东方是象、南方是马、西方是牛，北方是狮。守兽之间雕有法轮。图案下面有句用梵文书写的、出自古代印度圣书的格言“唯有真理得胜”。0
m【国 6小花歌】 《人民的意志》 f何s
【国年x在花】 k大 莲花 1时这北美枫
【国鸟】 蓝孔雀 来大
【国树】 菩提树 、榕树北美枫B9
【面积】 约298万平方公里（不包z括中印边境印占区和克什米尔印度实际控制花区等）。印度政府称 C是其领土为328.78天无8万平方公里。印度面积居世界花第七位。 来3北美文学网
【人口】 11.3亿(2007年)。有10个大民族和许多小民族，印度斯坦族占46.3%，泰卢固族8.6％，孟加拉族7.7％，马拉地族7.6%，泰米尔族7.4%，古吉拉特族4.6%，坎拿达族3.9%，马拉雅拉姆族3.9%，奥里雅族3.8%，旁遮普族2.3%。英语和印地语同为官方语言。约有82%的居民信奉印度教，其次为伊斯兰教（12%）、基督教（2.3%）、锡克教（1.9%）、佛教（0.8%）和耆那教（0.4%）等。y g
【首都】 新德里（New Delhi），连同老德里人口共1280万（2001年）。 一
【国家元首】 总统现任总统是普拉蒂巴-帕蒂尔（女），2007年7月25日就任。北美枫 北美枫m
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印度位于印度次大陆，主要由三部分组 来全成：在北部的喜马拉雅山区（其中就有海拔8, 们风598米的印度最高峰康城章加峰）、中央平原(I来ndo-Gangetic Plain)以及南部的德干高 r个原。 y大m
多条河流发源于或流经印度，例如有恒河、布拉马普特拉河、亚穆纳河、戈达瓦里河以及奎师那河(Krishna River)。印度河上流的一小段也位于印度境内。印度属热带季风气候，气温变化较大。 一 日z
象她的人民一样，印度的地质、地理和风土代表了地球历史的真正全貌。世界上最高而有最年轻的喜马拉雅山形成了印度北部的一道让人望而生畏的天然屏障，她东西绵延2500公里，构成50万平方公里的面积。她最著名的西崖沉冰川是冲积成富饶的北部，西部山谷的万年流淌的河流的永不枯竭的源泉。印度的圣河恒河，还有雅穆纳河、信度河、布拉马普特拉河从远古时期就孕育了沿岸的富饶大地的文明。到了西北部，有世界上最古老的、数百万年以来不再荣耀、不再肥沃的阿拉瓦里山系。9 北美枫a
文迪亚山和萨特普拉山脉从东到西平行横贯几乎整个印度半岛。撒黑亚得里山平行横贯印度西海岸，东海岸的不规则山系为东高止山。每个山系的漂亮景点星罗棋布，现代化的交通工具四通八达。喜马拉雅山有许多滑雪场，还有安全的爬山和河上漂流设备。每个山脉有其独特的雄伟壮丽和地理特点。茫茫林海，特别是亚热带森林里生活着各种野生动物，森林里建有野生动物保护区，游客可以大饱眼福，观赏百兽千鸟。靠近撒黑亚得里山海岸特别是克拉拉邦，果阿和玛哈施特拉邦的共干地区碧绿的阿拉伯海岸有数不清的美丽的山峡、峡湾、小溪和潟湖，令无数的游客渴望在难得美丽的宁静环境中陶冶性情。印度有7516公里的海岸线，阿拉伯海和孟加拉湾为太阳浴和水上运动爱好者提供舒适优美的场地和环境。 v 8c
温迪亚山和萨特普拉山是纳玛达河、达全菩提河、戈达瓦里河、克里西纳河、玛哈那月底河以及漕沃瑞河的发源地。这些河流以及山qz东部的布拉马普特拉河经历了许多古代王朝是和文化的兴衰，半岛上到处可以看到古代遗何nc址和残存的纪念碑。印度南部的泰米尔文化甚至早于北部的吠陀文明，泰米尔人以他们的语言比梵语古老而引以s自豪。北美文学网 生8
印度位于北纬8.4至37.6度之间，气候差异很大。当喜马拉雅山麓克什米尔山谷的拉达克和旁遮普气温在0度上下徘徊，冷得结冰的时候，半岛南部气温却在30度，热得汗流浃背。每年6到9月为印度的夏季西南季风期，是印度半岛大部分地区农业耕种季节，但滂沱大雨给耕种带来困难。不过从南到北的灌溉系统可以调节这种不利因素。具有创新精神的印度凭着勤劳和智慧已经战胜了季风的肆虐。过去常常遇到饥饿灾年的印度，在养活是1947年独立时三倍的人口的同时，还向外出口粮食和水果。 日4j
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世界四大文明古国之一。公元前2000年前后创造了印度河文明。约在公元前14世纪，原居住在中亚的雅利安人中的一支进入南亚次大陆，并征服了当地土著。约公元前1000年，开始形成以人种和社会分工不同为基础的种姓制度。公元前4世纪崛起的孔雀王朝开始统一印度次大陆，前3世纪阿育王统治时期疆域广阔，政权强大，佛教兴盛并开始向外传播。中世纪小国林立，印度教兴起。自11世纪起，来自西北方向的穆斯林民族不断入侵并长期统治印度。1526年建立莫卧儿帝国，成为当时世界强国之一。1600年英国侵入，建立东印度公司。1757年开始沦为英殖民地，1849年全境被英占领。1857年爆发反英大起义，次年英国政府直接统治印度。1947年6月，英将印度分为印度和巴基斯坦两个自治领。同年8月15日，印巴分治，印度独立。1950年1月26日，印度共和国成立，为英联邦成员国。 何 何
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印度独立后长期由国大党统治，反对党曾在1977年～1979年和1989年～1991年两次短暂执政。1996年以来印度政局不稳，到1999年先后举行3次大选，产生了5届政府。本届政府于1999年10月第十三届人民院选举产生，以印度人民党为首的24党“全国民主联盟”获胜，瓦杰帕伊为总理。了时
全国民主联盟政府较前几届政府稳定。政治上谋求国内政局和社会稳定，经济上实行“第二阶段经济改革”，外交上加速推进全方位大国外交战略。 日他B他
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【宪法】 宪法于1950年1月26日生人sv效。规定印度为联邦制国家，是主权的、社自会主义的、世俗的民主共和国。采取英国式的议会民主制。公民不分种族、性别、出身、宗教信仰和出生地点，在法律面前一律平等。总统 个小为国家元首和武装部队的统帅，由联邦议会不及邦议会组成选举团选出，北美文学网每届任期五年。t年来总统依照以总理为首的部长会议的建议行使 rv职权。以春
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【议会】 由联邦院（上院）和人民院（下院）组成。联邦院共244席，议员由各邦及中央直辖区立法院议员选举产生，任期六年，每两年改选1/3。联邦院每年召开四次会议。宪法规定副总统为法定的联邦院议长。现任联邦院议长帕伊隆·辛格·谢卡瓦特（Bhairon Singh Shekhawat），2002年8月19日就任。人民院为国家主要立法机构，其主要职能为：制定法律和修改宪法；控制和调整联邦政府的收入和支出；对联邦政府提出不信任案，并有权弹劾总统。人民院共543席，由选民直接选举产生，每五年举行一次大选。第13届人民院于1999年10月产生，印度人民党及其盟党获301席，组建政府。2002年，人民院组成为：印度人民党及其盟党306席，印度人民党181席，为第一大党；国大党（英）及其盟党123席，国大党112席；左翼政党及盟党63席，其余政党50席。人民院议长马诺哈尔·乔希(Manohar Joshi)，2002年5月10日就任。 s年时
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【政府】 本届政府于1999年10月13m日组成，是以印度人民党为首的24党全国民主 们a联盟政府。现主要内阁成员有：总理阿·比 kb瓦杰帕伊（Atal Bihari Vajpayee）、副总理兼内上政部长阿德瓦尼（L..K.Advani）、外交部长亚施国旺特·辛哈（Yashwant Sinht国ha）、财政部长贾斯旺特·辛格(Jaswant Singh)、国防部长乔治·费日德斯（George Fern 北美枫dandes）。g要
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【司法机构】 最高法院是最高司法权北美文学网力机关，有权解释宪法、审理中央政府与各8上z邦之间的争议问题等。各邦设有高等法院，县设有县法院。最高法院法官由总统委任。现任第34届首席法官V·N·卡尔（V N Khare），t9d于2002年12月就任。总检察长由总统任命，其s主要职责是就执法事项向政府提供咨询和建g议，完成宪法和法律规定的检察权，对宪法和法律的执行情况进行监督等。现任总是检察长S·J·索拉伯吉（Soli J.Sorabjee）。x
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【政党】 （1）印度人民党（Bharatiya Janata Party）：1980年4月成立，其前身是1951年成立的印度人民同盟。自称有350万党员。代表北部印度教教徒势力和城镇中小商人利益，具有强烈民族主义和教派主义色彩。1996年5月大选至今一直保持议会第一大党地位。现任党主席为奈杜(Naidu)。D0
（2）印度国民大会党（英迪拉·甘地派）（The Indian National Congress〔Indira Gandhi〕）：简称国大党（英）。据称有初级党员3000万，积极党员150万。1885年12月成立，领导了反对英国殖民统治和争取印度独立的斗争。印独立后长期执政，1969年和1978年两次分裂。1978年英·甘地组建新党，改用现名。该党现为最大在野党，现任主席索尼亚·甘地（Sonia Gandhi）。Cz
（3）印度共产党（马克思主义）（Commu他nist Party of India〔Marxist〕）：简称印共（马）北美文学网。1964年以孙达拉雅和南布迪里巴德为代表的 北美枫0一派从印度共产党分出后组成。近年来发展 6b较快，党员增至70万，c是印度最大的左翼政党。在西孟加拉邦长期 来z执政。现任总书记哈·辛·苏吉特（H.S.Sur全要来jeet）。 1j是i
（4）印度共产党（Communist Party of India 来春）：成立于1920年。有党员54万。1964年分裂，5以党主席什·阿·丹吉为首的一派仍沿用印共名称。1981年4月，丹吉因支持英·甘地与党内的发生分歧而被开除出党1l大，该党再次分裂。现任总书记Ａ 来i·7·巴尔丹(A·B 个C·Bardan)。 个他
（5）泰卢固之乡党（Telugu Desam Party），安得拉邦地方政党。近年来是印度政坛的一支重要力量，1999年大选成为全国最大的地方政党。在安得拉邦执政，党主席、邦首席部长钱·奈杜（Narra Chandrababu Naidu）以重视信息技术著称。个
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阿卜杜尔·卡拉姆：总统。1931年10月15日生年nz于泰米尔纳杜邦，穆斯林，无党派。早年就读于蒂鲁奇圣日约瑟夫学院和马德拉斯技术学院，分别获得北美文学网理学士和航空技术博士学位。自1958年起，先t以和后在印国防部下属的空军技术开发和生产理事会、航空发展局、印太空研究委员会从事科学研究。是印空间研究组织的缔造者之一q。1982年起担任国防研究和发展研究所所长，负责实施印度导弹综合发展计划，研发了大 Cs地、烈火、三叉戟、眼镜蛇等自产导弹，被誉为印度的导弹之父。1981年、1990年和1997年天分别获印度三级B、二级和最高荣誉一级勋章，出任印政府首席科学秘书。著有自传《火之翼》和《印度20n20--新千年蓝图》等书，希望通过科技治国，5印度在2020年跻身发达国的家行列。北美文学网z
阿塔尔·比哈里·瓦杰帕伊：总理。1926 生春年12月生于印度中央邦瓜廖尔一个教师家庭。7获文学硕士学位。1951年参加人民同盟创建工 个x作（该同盟为印度人民党的前身）。自1957年如起，多次当选印度人民院和联邦院议员。1977年，英·甘地实行紧急状态期间被捕入狱。出 d生狱后，他领导的人民同盟与其他党派共同组月建人民党，并在当年的大选中获胜，建立了印度独立后的第一个非国大党政府，瓦任外m大在交部长。1979j年访华。1980年，人民党分裂，以瓦为首的原年时自人民同盟脱离人民党 C月，另外组建印度人民党。瓦先后出任该党主不席、议会党团领袖。1996年大选后，印度人民山天6党成为议会第一大党，瓦曾出任内阁总理13天了个要。1998年3月再度担任总理。1999年10月，以印度z人民党为首的24党全国民主联盟在提前进行的第13届人民院大选中获胜，瓦第三次出任总理。 8y
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独立后经济有较大发展。农业由严重缺粮达到基本自给。工业已形成较为完整的体系，自给能力较强。印度政府于1991年7月开始进行全面经济改革，放松对工业、外贸和金融部门的管制，1992至1996年经济年均增长率为6.2％。九·五计划（1997至2002年）期间经济年均增长率有所下降，为5.4％。2001年，印出台十·五计划，将2002年-2007年的经济增长率定为年均8％。hC是
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2001/2002年度，政府继续深化第二阶段经e济改革，加速国有企业私有化，实行包括农何不了产品在内的部分生活必需品销售自由化，改北美枫x们善投资环境，精简政府机构，削减财政赤字 人来。由于农业和服务业的快速发展，印经济增9长率达到5.6%，较上年提高了1.6%。8nd我2
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国内生产总值（2001/2002年度）：209400们亿卢比 北美文学网说fD
国内生产总值增长率（2001/2002年度）：5.6％ 为有风
货币名称：印度卢比（Rupee）的这
汇率（2002年7月）：1美元=48.83卢比 A风
年均通货膨胀率（20他01/2002年度）：4.3%的全
（资料来源：印度中央统计署2003年1月公布数据） dq这
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【工业】 2001/2002年4度，工矿业比上年度增长2.7%，产值33680亿卢比，占国内生产总值的26.4%，是过去10年以来增长最慢的一年。其中制造业2.4%,电力工业2.7%，矿业1.1%，初级、中间产品和消费品的增长都较上年有大幅减少。近年来，印度纺织、北美枫说6食品、精密仪器、汽车、软件制造、航空和空间等新兴工业发 北美枫们展迅速。
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主要工业产品产量如下（单位：万吨）： 我我D
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煤 在 30000 30963m时为 32779北美文学网B年
铁矿砂7270他 d要 7770 北美文学网 n.a.j 一
原油 31953243 3203 v
天然气（亿立方米）284.5如 294.8 Ce297.1他
水泥 98219761 10690说sm
钢材 24402927 3064是2
北美枫们C 化肥（氮、磷肥） 1430 1470 n.a.8年中0
布（亿平方米）236 402 n.a.h生
发电量（亿度）48074996 5153i了
汽车（万辆） 87.5 人国i 79年为在.7 yl e 83.4小个
（资料来源：印度政府2002/2003年度经济概览， n.a.暂无统计）9B无
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【农业】 2001/2002年度农业及相关产业增长率5.7%，产值30205亿卢比，占国内生产总值的24.7%。由于全年降水的时间和地区分配均匀，粮食产量增长6.3%，为2.12亿吨。粮食储备目前已达5000万吨。农村人口约占全国的72％。全国耕地面积约１.6亿公顷，人均0.17公顷。印度是世界第一大产奶国，2001/2002年度牛奶产量约为8460万吨，人均每天226克。印也是世界重要的产棉国和产茶国。u 国
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近些年主要农副产品产量如下（单位：万吨）： 天9
1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02z
粮食总产量20890 1959021200 xh们
稻 米89508490 8310 g
小 麦7560北美文学网6870北美枫日花 7180 北美枫为D
牛 奶78108100 8460C说6山
油 北美枫个料20701840 20509z
甘 蔗29920 29920 30010t和
茶83.584.8 84.7天这
皮棉（万包）* 1160970 1010c
黄麻（万包）**10501050 1160 为来北美枫
注 * 每包皮棉北美枫是了为1 一花70公斤。 n人b
** 每包黄麻为 有要180公斤。 的 一
（资料来源：印北美文学网度政府2002/2003经济概山何个览） 国
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【服 务 业】 80年代以来以高于其他们产业的速度发展。1993-2000年，印服务业实现x了7.1%-10.5%的高速增长。2001/02年度，服务业比上年和增长6.5%，总产值为61630亿卢比，占国内生产总值的48.8%。从月业人数1994年为1261.8万人，其中85.2%为政府机全在r关和国营部门职工。印度软件制造与服务业2近几年来以年均超过50％的增长率迅速发展,2001/02年度软件总产值 98.6亿美元,其中出口78亿美元。政府计划到2008/2009年度，印软件产值将达到870亿美元，出口500亿美元。
全时
【旅 游 业】 政府已将旅游业作为社会效益良好的创汇产业列入发展重点，该产业已成为全国第六大出口创汇部门。1999年各类旅馆1229家。近年来，外国旅游者人数逐年递增，旅游收入不断增加。受9·11事件影响，印度2001/02年度的外国游客量下降了10.2%，人数242.3万，收入下降8.1%，为29.1亿美元。主要旅游点有阿格拉、德里、斋浦尔、昌迪加尔、纳兰达、迈索尔、果阿、海德拉巴、特里凡特琅等。eD
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【交通运输】铁路是最大的国营部门，如亦为主要运输手段，总长度居亚洲第一位， 人B世界第四位。铁路部门实行单独预算，每年如与中央财政预算一起提交议会讨论通过。近c年来，公路运输发展较快，已承担了全国货 来2运量的60%，为世界最大的公路网之一。海运5能力居世界北美文学网第18位。
铁路：2001/2002年度铁路线总长6.31万公如里，其中电气化铁路1.57万公里，约占铁路总 r如长的25％；2001/2002年度客运量4930亿人公里， y在货运量为3332亿吨公里，铁路运输总收入3783.7 Ca亿卢比，比上是年来增长8..5%。z他
公路：2001/02年度总长约330万公里，其中国家级路5.8万公里。1999/2000年度登记的各种机动车辆约4839万辆，其中客车55.9万辆，货车268.1万辆，公路运输总收入为3393.3亿卢比。目前，公路承担着全国80%的客运量和60%的货运量，全国日平均客运量逾6000万人次。 我的 一
水运：印有港口共约200个，其中12个大北美文学网港口和184个中小港口。内陆可航行河道总长了A时约1.4万公里，实际使用的不足30%。印有83家海运公t和个司，其中19家承担远洋运输业务，49家承担近北美枫为q海运输业务，其余两兼。到2002年3月，印全国天水运总能力为3.44亿吨，2001/2002年度印水运货 r小运总量为2.88亿吨。印还在十·五计划中将主c要港口的总货运量提高到4.7亿吨。孟买为全国最大港口，海运的1/5和集装箱运输的1/2经过这里；其他重要海tv在港有加尔u各答、马德拉斯、科钦、果阿等。 北美文学网r
空运：印航空公司有：印度国际航空公司、印度航空公司和其他42家私营航空公司。2001/2002年度，旅客数量为3998.3万，货运量为85.4万吨。航线通达各大洲主要城市。全国有德里、孟买、加尔各答、马德拉斯和特里凡特琅五个国际机场；国内机场92个。了不年
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【财政金融】 中央和地方财政分立，z预算有联邦和邦两级。每年4月1日至次年3月31日为一个财政年度。多年来推行赤字预算以 CD刺激经济发展，中央和邦级地方债务累积占9国内生产总值的80%，庞大的赤字已成为经济中主要的不稳定因素。2001/2002年度政府财政是赤字相当于国内生产总值的10%。为解决赤字问题，印政府提交了财政责任与预算管理法s案，目标是到2006年将中央政府赤字 生9削减到占国内5生产总值 个y的的2%，并在2011年前大幅降低政山来了府债务规模。 生f要
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近年中央和地方财政状况如下（单位：亿卢比）： 的 v
99/20002000/012001/02来春
总收入 54261.659796.367099.1 一在
总支出 54581.359561.767812.9我小o
财他政赤字-18482.6 -1北美文学网9985.3 自 -2北美文学网2871.6北美文学网 来风
（资料来源：印度政府2002/2003经济概览） 何
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截至2002年12月，印外汇储备（包括黄金储备和特别提款权）为704亿美元。到2001年9月，外债为996.1亿美元，占国内生产总值的21%，其中短期债务占总债务的比重从1991年3月的10.2%降到2001年9月的2.8%。了北美枫ue
北美文学网 d日
【对外贸易】 近年来，由于进口增加、出口不振，贸易赤字日益严重，成为国际收支失衡的主要原因。近几年外贸情况如下（单位：百万美元）： Bi以
1999/2000 2000/01 2001/02 何e
进口额55383 59264576180 何
出口额37542 4489444915春r
1g差 额-17841-14370 y风-127031p全t
说要无（资料来源：印度政府2001e个2/2003印度经济概天览） 生要
春 来5
2001/02年度，印出口增长0.8%，进口下降0 生q.2%,贸易逆差与非贸易盈余基本相抵，经常账户大体平衡。2002年1花月，印政府公布2002-2007年中期出口战月略，计划以下列部门为重点将年出口总额增加到800亿美元：工程、机电、电子、纺织、g宝石和首饰、化工、农业、皮革和鞋类。该了ye年度印主要进口商品为：珍珠、宝石、电子7产品、金银、化工产品、石油及其制品、燃中料、资本货物、化肥、钢铁、造纸原料、纸D张北美枫如日等。主要出口商品为：珠宝制品、棉纱及棉j织品、化工制品、机械及五金制品、石油制n品、皮革及其制品、农业及相关半成品、海s产品、铁矿砂及矿产品等。主要进出口方向了年大是欧盟（比利时、法国、德国、荷兰、英国的）、北美地区（加拿大月、美国）及澳m的0大利x亚和日 d来本。天
8我 何
【外国资本】 印度从1991年起实行积极吸引外资的新政策。1991年至2000年,外国直接投资协议金额达639亿美元。 2001/2002年度，印吸收外国投资52.8亿美元，其中直接投资39亿美元。到2002年10月，对印投资最多的国家分别是：毛里求斯、美、日、英、德、荷兰、韩、法、意和新加坡。吸引外资多的行业是能源、通讯、电子设备、运输业、服务业、化工、旅馆和旅游、纺织业等。w山时
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【外国援助】 印是世界上主要的受援国之一。2001/2002年度获贷款及捐赠总额为2509.5亿卢比，约为51.5亿美元，实际利用外援1755.9亿卢比，约为36亿美元。近年取得外援情况如下（单位：亿卢比）：4
en04
1999/2000 200n在x0/01 200 6l1/02uD
国际复兴开发银行 36.78720.85803.70是
国际开发协会 352.69413.53444.00 8q 有日
日本 374.23272.98205.80r4
亚洲开发银行 216.3m0 c52花6.50 mtl 672.50 人山要
德国 41.00 38.6041.20要他
英国 204.10 47.40194.40不了f
美国 7.北美文学网458.11全在来 12.20B大
荷兰 13.377.03 33.29上
（资料来源：印度政府2002/2003年度经济概览）我kw6
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【人民生活】 2001/2002年度印度人均收入为378美元。据印度官方公布资料，1999/2000年度印生活在贫困线以下的人口为2.6亿，占印总人口的26.1％，其中75%的贫困人口生活在农村，人数1.93亿。印度历届政府将消除贫困作为经济发展的首要任务之一，十·五计划中制定了减少贫困人口的目标，2007年要将贫困人口数量减少到2.2亿，占总人口的19.3%。1999/2000年度印度失业率为7.32%。2000/01年度，印消费价格指数上升5.2％。到2000年，全国有各类诊疗所和医院4.3万家，登记行医人员50.39万人，登记护士73.7万人。2000年，人口预期寿命为65岁，人口出生率25.8‰，死亡率8.5‰。春北美枫
3z0 v
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国家军事和全
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印军前身为英国殖民主义者的雇佣军。1947年印巴分治后始建分立的三军。1978年创建独立的海岸警卫队。总统是名义上的武装力量统帅，内阁为最高军事决策机构。国防部负责部队的指挥、管理和协调。各军种司令部负责拟定、实施作战计划，指挥作战行动。现陆军参谋长上将S. 潘德马那巴汗（S.Padmanabhan），空军参谋长上将S.克里希纳斯瓦米(S.Krishnaswamy)，海军参谋长上将M.辛格（M. Singh）。实行募兵制。陆、海、空三军总兵力为127万，居世界第四位。其中陆军103.5万，分东、南、西、北和中央五大军区，拥有中程导弹，已具备核能力。海军7万，分为西、东二支舰队和南部科钦训练基地；孟买和维沙卡帕特南为最大的海军基地，分别是西、东舰队司令部所在地。1999年新成立远东军区，司令部设在布莱尔港。空军17万，分成西、西南、东、南和中央五个军区，拥有米格29、幻影2000等先进作战飞机。海岸警卫队分西岸、东岸、安达曼和尼科巴三个大队，指挥部分设于孟买、马德拉斯和布莱尔港。另有50多万预备役军人和100多万准军事部队。0时
1998年5月，以印度人民党为首的联合政和府进行核试验,坚持建立最低有效核威慑。 1999年8月17日，印国家安全顾问委8我e员会提出核构想草案，提出印要建立陆基、空基、海基三位一体的战略核力量，强调印将奉行拥有可信u的最低限度的核威慑力的理论，称印拥有核如武器的根本目的是为了阻止任何国家或实体来对印及其部队使用和威胁使用核武器，承诺 ys不首先使用核武器以及不对无核国家动用核 们和武器。 2003年1月，印正式全面出台核政策框 来在架，成立核指挥机构及其年m9直属战略部队司令部，核指挥机构由总理、 北美枫g国防、内政、外交和财政部长、各军种参谋来长等组成的政治委员会控制。 lt
2001/2002年度国防预算开支为6200亿卢比（约合132亿美元），比上年增长13.8％。9
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【文化】 来年 v
印度已知的历史可以追溯到公元前2000年，以雅利安人第一次在印度北部定居的移民浪潮为开始。很可能在移民和当地居民之间发生了激烈冲突。但显然是伟大的印度的同化精神和忍耐精神取胜，这种精神一直持续到现在。在以后的一千年间雅利安人遍布整个印度，创造了大部分早期的古典梵语文献，如《梵经》、《吠陀经》、《奥义书》和两大史诗《罗摩衍那》和 《摩诃婆罗多》。时
印度到处是无数历史纪念碑。 一些保存佛祖骨灰的古老佛塔、刻有法令的阿育王柱、铜匾和石碑散布在整个次大陆。玛哈拉施特拉邦等地有雕刻精美的阿旃塔石窟、爱罗拉石窟、艾勒凡塔石窟，东南西北有保存完好的不同建筑风格的雄伟的庙宇，拉加斯坦的城堡和庄园、德里的壮丽的红堡、历史纪念碑、壮观的法特普尔西克里王宫、宏伟美丽的泰姬陵……数说不完的名胜古迹。游客一旦被吸引到神化般的印度来，会让他千眼万眼看不够。 国
现代印度是一个充满活力的国家， 就透明的民主性而言，她又是世界上最大的国家，应该为此感到自豪。二战以后独立的第三世界国家中，有很少的国家能象印度那样这么忠实地保护其民主制度。不可讳言，印度城镇还有穷人，还有贫民窟。但随着印度的科学和工业技术的发展，人民的生活水平会随之提高，到了21世纪，一定会达到中等生活水平。印度的新兴的信息技术工程人员和信息企业赢得了世界的尊敬。其国民生产总值增长率仅次于中国。印度人民决心在现代世界崛起，印度脉搏随着人民的青春般的活力跃动。j
印度的语言同样多样化。印度有大约2000种，其中55种有自己的文字和文学。有各自巨大的文学宝库的发展完善的19种语言被承认为印度的官方语言。印度的每个宗教在次大陆都有它的信徒。印度的信仰印度的人占绝大多数，为85%，其次为穆斯林、基督教、佛教、犹太教、拜火教、耆那教等，所有不同宗教和谐相处。整个印度次大陆遍布无数的漂亮的庙宇、雄伟的教堂、宏大的清真寺、香火旺盛的佛教庙、犹太教堂和拜火教寺院。印度西部商业特大都市孟买可以说是印度宗教、种族、语言多样性的一个缩影。市内除了以上各教的庙、堂外，还有有著名的亚美尼亚教堂、神道教庙和大同教庙等。的上
说7个
【教育】 dz 来年
实行12年一贯制中小学教育。高等教育共8年，包括3年学士课程、2年硕士课程和3年博士课程。此外还有各类职业技术教育、成人教育等非正规教育。2001/2002年度，印政府教育经费占国民生产总值的3.99%，成人识字率为65.38%。2000/01年度中小学入学率81.6%，但小学缀学率为40.7%，初中缀学率为53.7%。全国现有254所综合性大学，著名的有德里大学、尼赫鲁大学、加尔各答大学等。至2000/01年度，各级学校、学生和教师情况如下：7要
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学校（万所） k在校人数（国万人） 生花年re
高等院校1.04 606* 大和
高级中学12.6 2880 天3i9
初级中学20.6 4280 9北美枫
小学63.8711380 t 国
y的
说生日
* 为1996年 d9数字。2
（资料来源：印度政府2 有和002/2003年度经济8这说概览）s不春
年一i
【新闻出版】 印报刊大多属私人和财团所有。到1993年底，全国共有96种文字的报刊33612种，总发行量为6761.1万份。印地文和英文报刊分别占总数的37%和16%。报刊中，最大的三家日报依次为《印度时报》、《马拉雅拉娱乐报》和《古吉拉特新闻》。主要印地文报纸有《旁遮普之狮报》、《今天日报》、《印度斯坦报》等；主要英文报纸有《印度斯坦时报》、《政治家报》、《印度教徒报》、《印度快报》等。f这
主要新闻机构和通讯社有：（１）新闻和发布署：相当于政府中央通讯社，拥有1100多n名国内和180多名国外特派记者，电传网覆盖国全国各地，向8000余家新闻单位供稿。设有8个地区总分社和27个分社。（２）印度报业托拉 一了斯：印最大通讯社，半官方性质。成立于1947北美文学网年8月，后兼并印联合通讯社和路透社印度支fp为社，于1949年元旦开业。现设136个国内分社和11个海外分社，员工1000多名，海外记者30多名。英文日发稿量超过10万字。在北京派驻记者花。（３）印度联合新闻社：印第二大通讯社 生a，系报业同仁的合股企业。1959年登记成立。现有分社100多个。目前向四个海湾国家及新加坡、毛里求斯提供新闻服务，在迪拜、华盛顿和新加坡设有分社，向22个国家派驻了记者。（４）印度斯坦新闻社：私营，主要编发印地文、马拉地文、古吉拉特文和尼泊尔文的新闻。 不g
全印广播电台隶属政府新闻广播部，广播网覆盖全国人口95%。对内使用23种语言播音，日播音75小时15分钟。拥有100多名国内记者，向7个国家派有常驻记者。e们
全印电视台于1959年9月试播，1976年脱离全印广播电台成为独立机构，隶属新闻广播部。全国现有18家电视台，6个邦开通了卫星电视接收。电视网覆盖全国人口的86%。 北美文学网以
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印为不结盟运动创始国之一，历届政府均强调不结盟是其外交政策的基础，努力与所有国家发展关系，力争在地区和国际事务中发挥重要作用。冷战结束后，印政府调整了过去长期奉行的倾向苏联的大国平衡政策，推行全方位务实外交，创造有利于自身发展的持久和平稳定的地区环境。春要
近年来，随着综合国力不断增强，印加快推进大国外交战略。强调外交为经贸服务，在保持与俄罗斯及其他独联体国家关系的同时，大力发展与美、日、欧等发达国家的关系，尤其是经贸科技合作，吸收资金和技术。与东盟及亚太地区国家的关系发展迅速，1996年正式成为东盟全面对话国并参加东盟地区论坛；积极要求加入亚太经合组织工作组和亚欧会议；1997年参加“孟印缅斯泰经济合作组织”；2000年11月与泰、缅、越、老、柬共同成立“湄公河－恒河合作计划”。1997年倡导建立了环印度洋区域合作联盟。重视能源安全，逐步拓展同海湾、中亚等能源供应国的交往与合作。到1999年7月，同163个国家有外交关系。r 一
印主张在和平共处五项原则及联合国宗4旨和原则的基础上建立公正合理、考虑到所B有国家利益并能为所有人接受的国际政治q新秩序，要求进一步加强南南合作和南北对如话，呼吁各国共同创造一个有利于第三世界发展的公正何无D合理的新经济秩序。建议立即了在x扩大安理会，以增加其代表性，实现决策民主化，提高工作效D率。是
1992年联大期间正式向大会提出成为安理会常任理事国的要求，强烈反对美等西方国家提议让德国和日本自动成为安理会常任理事国，要求经过地区协商一致程序讨论发展中国家成为常任理事国的问题，要求联合国先就进入安理会的资格达成一致，然后决定扩大安理会的方案，积极参加联合国维和行动。北美枫
1998年5月，以印度人民党为首的联合政o府进行核试验,坚持建立“最低有效核威慑”是。 1999年8月17日，印国家安全顾z问委员会提出“核构想草案”，强调印将奉北美文学网行拥有可信的最低限度的核威慑力的理论，北美枫人b称印拥有核武器的根本目的是为说了阻止j任何国家或实体对印及其部队 6说使用和威s胁使用核武器，承诺不首先使用核武器以及g不对无核国s家动用核武5器。花C
在人权问题上，主张推进人权应考虑各国的具体情况，认为最根本的人权是生存的权利；对发展中国家来说，发展问题优于民主和人权，反对将人权问题政治化，反对利用人权干涉他国内政，从而损害别国的主权和统一。c 生在
重视全球环境保护问题，认为环境问题正成为国际上最令人关注的问题，解决这一问题应与发展中国家的发展要求相联系，环保的主要责任应由发达国家承担，建议发达国家和发展中国家联合从事研究和开发来解决环境问题。 日有
关注阿富汗局势，支持维护阿的独立、主权与领土完整，反对外国干涉阿内政。支持阿拉伯人民的正义斗争，认为中东问题的关键是巴勒斯坦问题，近年来，与以色列和巴勒斯坦等阿拉伯国家的关系都有发展。到1999年7月，同163个国家有外交关系。e是
2001年印外交活跃，加速推进全方位大国外交战略。大国关系上，印与俄、美、英等国先后实现高层互访。此外，今年到印访问的还有联合国秘书长安南、德国总理施罗德、日本前首相森喜朗、法国外长维德里纳、蒙古总统巴嘎班迪、希腊总理西米迪斯等访印。在东盟方向，印大力推行“东向政策”，年内，瓦杰帕伊总理先后访问了越南、印尼、马来西亚。ri
2002年印继续推进全方位大国外交战略人和h。印积极推动与美国的新型伙伴关系，强化同俄罗斯的战略伙伴关系，继续改善与中国s的关系，积极发展同东盟关系，并改善南亚n周边国家的关系。9·11事件后，印巴关系围绕我时l印要求巴停止跨界恐怖活动持续紧张。2002年，印巴在边界集结重兵对峙。在国际社会的c积极斡旋下，10月印巴开始分阶段撤军，两国关系出现缓和迹象了r时，但双方仍未恢复和谈。 一中春
印关注阿富汗局势，支持维护阿的独立39q、主权与领土完整，反对外国干涉阿内政， 一在积极参与阿战后重建工作。支持阿拉伯人民 一无的正义斗争，认为中东问题的关键是巴勒斯c坦问题，近年来，与以色列和巴勒斯坦等阿拉伯国家的关系都有fD0发展。m
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【同我国的关系】 1950年4月1日中印建交。1959年西藏叛乱后，中印关系恶化。1962年10月，中印边境发生大规模武装冲突。1976年双方恢复互派大使后，两国关系逐步改善。1988年、1992年、1993年、1994年印度总理拉吉夫·甘地、总统文卡塔拉曼、总理拉奥、副总统纳拉亚南先后访华。1991年、1993年、1994年、1995年、1996年李鹏总理、全国政协主席李瑞环、钱其琛副总理兼外长、乔石委员长、江泽民主席分别访问了印度。1998年，印度以“中国威胁”为借口进行核试验，使中印关系严重受挫。经我反复做工作后，印政府领导人多次表示愿意寻求发展对华关系。1999年，印度外长贾斯旺特·辛格访华, 双方确认，中印关系发展的前提是互不视对方为威胁，基础是两国共同倡导的和平共处五项原则。中印关系由此步入改善和发展的进程。两国在政治、经贸、科技、议会、军事和文化等领域的交流与合作得到加强。u上
2000年，时逢中印建交五十周年，两国们关系得到进一步改善和发展。5月28日- 6月3日，应国家主席江泽民邀请，印度总统纳拉亚全说7南对中国进行国事访问。其他重要交往有： 3月6-7日，中印首轮司级安全对话在京举行。 3月29日，应印度人民党（BJP）邀请，中共中央中对外联络部部长戴秉国访印。4月28-29日，杨文昌副外长赴印度参加中印边界问题 yj联合工作小组第12轮会谈。 7月7-12日，印联邦8gm院副议长、各国议会联盟理事会主席赫卜杜拉女士应邀对中国进行友好访问。 8月29、31北美文学网日，李鹏委员长在纽约出席千年议长大会期间，分别会见了议联理事会主席、印联邦院D副议长赫卜杜拉女士和印人民院议年x0长巴拉约吉。115月13日，中印边界问题外交和军事专家小组第月8次会议在北京举行，双方交换了中描述边境中段实控x线走向的样图，并就双边关系等问上题交换了年了在意见。2x
2002年，中国同印度的关系进一步改善和发展。1月13-18日 应印总理瓦杰帕伊邀请，国务院总理朱镕基对印度进行正式访问，先后访问了阿格拉、德里、孟买和班加罗尔。访问期间，朱总理与瓦杰帕伊总理举行了会谈，并分别会见了印总统纳拉亚南、副总统兼联邦院议长坎特、人民院议长巴拉约吉、人民院副议长赫卜杜拉、反对党领袖、国大党主席索尼娅·甘地等。两国领导人就双边关系及共同关心的地区、国际问题等广泛交换了意见。双方再次确认中印互不构成威胁，并就共同加强经贸等各领域的合作达成广泛共识。双方签署了包括旅游、空间、水文、科技、植物检疫等领域的6个合作文件。6月4日，江泽民主席在阿拉木图出席亚洲相互协作与信任措施会议峰会期间，会见了与会的印总理瓦杰帕伊。江主席对近年来中印关系取得的进展表示肯定，并欢迎瓦杰帕伊总理访华。江主席还就当前印巴局势阐述了中方的立场，希望印巴双方通过对话缓解紧张局势。来北美文学网
中印之间存在历史遗留下来的边界问题。中印边界全长约2000公里，分东、中、西三段。双方争议区共约12.5万平方公里，其中东段约9万平方公里，中段约2000平方公里，西段约3.3万平方公里。最大的争议在东段，印度占领着大约9万平方公里的中国土地。1989年6月至2000年4月，中印边界问题联合工作小组共举行十二轮会谈。1993年9月，双方签署了“关于在中印边境实际控制线地区保持和平与安宁的协定”。1995年，双方互撤了驻扎在中印边界东段旺东地区的两对哨所，基本解决了两国军队过于接近问题。1996年江泽民主席访印期间，两国签署了“关于在中印边境实控线地区军事领域建立信任措施的协定”。 为落实两国达成的协定，双方于1994年成立了中印外交和军事专家小组。2000年11月，该小组举行了第八次会议，双方交换了边境中段实控线走向的样图。2001年6月和12月，该小组举行了第九和第十次会议。2002年3月、6月和10月，该小组举行了第十一、十二和十三次会议。t和
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【同俄罗斯等国家的关系】 印与前苏北美文学网联于1947年建交。1955年后，苏联开始向印提供以巨额经济、军事援助。1971年，两国签订“和q平友好合作条约”，建立极为密切的双边关系。1991年底苏联解体后，印大力开展与俄罗斯和其他各独立国家的接触交往。1993年，俄 C月罗斯总统叶利钦访印，两国签订了“印俄友好合作条约”、“印俄防务合作协定”和“不印俄贸易合作议定书”等九项协定。1994年，俄罗斯副总理尤里·亚罗夫、国家杜马主席里 北美枫7普金、总理切尔诺梅尔金先后访印，印度总 人国理拉奥实现访俄，促使两国在政治、经济、 生春军事、文化、科技等各个领域的关系迅速恢c复和发展。1995－1997年，印俄关系继续回升。我ov1997年3月，印度总理高达访问俄罗斯。俄明确 一4提出两国建立“战略伙伴”关系，重申支持北美文学网印在克什米尔问题上的立场和成为联合国安B理会常任理事国的要求。10月，印国防部长亚 C时达夫全1春访问俄罗斯。俄重申不向巴基斯坦出售武器山一小，双方同意将两国长期军事技术合作协议有日效期延长至2010年。1998－1999年，印俄关系全我们c面提升。1998年5月，印核试后，俄反对对印进行经济制裁；12月，俄总理普里马科夫对印进行正式访问。 1999年5月，俄总统特使普里科u德克和印外长辛格互访，双方主要讨论了科 北美枫v索沃问题和双边北美文学网关系，呼吁北约停止对南联盟的军事行动，重申将建立战略伙伴关系，俄方承诺将两国北美文学网军事合作提高到不最高水平，将向印提供印要求的所有z武器。人lk
2000年，印俄关系得到进一步加强。2001年，印俄关系继续稳步发展。2002年，印俄关系继续得到巩固，双方进一步深化军贸和军技合作。Bt说7这
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【同美国的关系】 50年代～60年代，两国关系密切。1971年印与前苏联签订“和平友好合作条约”并发动肢解巴基斯坦的第三次印巴战争后，印美关系严重受挫。80年代后期关系有所恢复，近年来得到进一步发展。目前，美是印最大的贸易伙伴和投资国。1998年，印美关系因印进行核试而受到严重影响。尔后印外长辛格与美副国务卿塔尔博特举行了多轮会谈，两国关系有了很大的缓和和发展。大B我
2000年，印度积极拓展同美国关系。2001年，印度继续巩固印美关系发展的势头。2002年，印积极推动同美国关系，双方在军事领域的交流与合作发展迅速。hmnc全
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【同欧盟国家的关系】 2000年，印与欧盟建立首脑会晤机制，成为继中国之后第二个与欧盟建立类似机制的发展中国家。欧盟是印最大的贸易伙伴，双方贸易额占印外贸的近30%。我风 有B
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【同东盟国家的关系】 印度同东南亚国家地理位置相近，有悠久的历史关系，但因印1970-1990年间外交上推行亲苏政策及双方在柬埔寨问题上存在分歧，印与东南亚国家政治关系一般。九十年代，印积极推行东向政策，重视加强同东盟各成员国的交流与合作。1996年印成为东盟全面对话伙伴国，加入东盟地区论坛。1997年参加孟印缅斯泰经济合作组织；2000年11月与泰、缅、越、老、柬共同成立湄公河－恒河合作计划。 A9
2002年，印度和东盟举行首次领导人会m议，建立印度--东盟10+1对我说无话机制，标志双来方关以系进入一f要p个新阶段。
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【同巴基斯坦的关系】 1947年8月印巴 1小分治后始终不睦，并于1948年、1965年和1971年c三次爆发全面战争。1971年12月断交，1976年7月北美枫r春复交。80上年代关系有所缓和，近年来因克什米尔争端e又不时出现紧张局面，边境交火事件不断。双方领导人和官员为改善关系进行过多次对D话和谈判。1992年底，印度发生阿约迪亚毁寺事件后，在巴引起强烈反响，导致印巴关系z下降。1993年，两国关系因孟买爆炸案和哈兹t大p拉特巴尔清真寺等事件继续恶化。1994年，印 y日巴关系因相互指责并驱逐对方外交人员而持续紧张。1995年，印巴就印控克什米尔地区沙不拉尔谢立夫城的圣陵和清真寺被毁事件相互指责，双边关系更趋紧 6l张。1996年，印巴关系稍有缓和，但未取得实7质性进展。1997年，印巴恢复政治对话和总理会晤，两国关系出现缓和势头。1998年，印巴l相继进行核试验 北美枫n，展开核军备竞赛，两国关系急剧紧张。1999不年2月，印总理瓦杰帕伊与巴总理谢里夫签署c了《拉合尔宣言》，双边一度缓和。但49月印巴试射导弹，5月两国在印控克什米尔地8月k区卡吉尔发生激烈冲突，印巴关系再次由缓和趋向恶化。12月，一 一在架印民航班被劫持，印外2长指责巴与此北美枫小来事有以牵连。9
2000年，印巴关系处于僵持状态，年底气氛有所缓和。2001年，印巴关系以“9·11”事件为界线呈前缓后紧之势。2002年，印巴关系仍处于紧张对峙状态。D
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【同其他邻国的关系】 与南亚邻国各2方面联系较多，但也存在许多矛盾。1997年，B印对邻国政策做出重大调整，推行“多予少s取”的“古杰拉尔主义”政策，与各国关系 ke普遍得到明显改善。1998年，印度核试引发南这亚地区核军备竞赛，导致南亚局势急剧紧张北美枫j说，南亚其他国家对此仅作谨慎表态。1999年，印巴在克什米尔地区爆发卡吉尔冲突， 6w南亚局势恶化，南亚其他国家均对此表示关注，呼吁印巴两国保持克制和冷静。2002年，印与南亚其他邻国关系继 一g续有所发展。7花l
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4大传统仪式走遍全世界，入境随俗是不变的真理。印度人有4大传统仪式，分别是出生、葬礼、婚姻和普迦仪式。除此之外，在印度旅行，你一定要知道印度的10项特殊习惯和6大禁忌，保你玩得开心、一路平安。j年和说
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在印度的传统上十分重男轻女自，因为女儿结婚时，父母必须准备一笔丰富 北美枫2的嫁妆，如果没有嫁妆，女儿是嫁不j出去的。而这对于贫穷人家而言，确实是一项庞大的负担。全w花
印度人如果生下的是女儿时，会用拍手示意，代表两手空空来也。但如果生的是儿子时，那就大大不同了，家人会立刻敲锣庆祝，表示儿子将来娶老婆时，可以带来响当当的嫁妆。 dDm
印度人庆祝小孩出生与平安成长的方式，就是到寺庙进行“普迦仪式”、唱颂祈祷文，然后和亲朋好友举行餐宴。要
印度小孩出生后，父母都会找人为他们占卜，小孩的名字多半取自英雄或神祇。小孩的生辰八字尤其受到重视，因为这可以决定小孩未来的婚姻对象。 v以
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印度教徒死亡时，都会在河坛举行火葬仪式。印度教徒去世后，家人会以黄色或白色绢布包裹尸体，然后放在两根竹制担架上，以游行方式抬到河坛火葬地点。u l来
传统上，将死者抬送到火葬场的任务，应该由家属担任，但是现在大部份的人都交给专人处理。在印度，专门处理丧葬事宜的人，都是被视为种姓地位最低的贱民。
一般送葬的仪式都非常简单，但是比较 来月富有的人家，可能会请乐师在前面演奏，浩s浩荡荡地游行。火葬前，死者的长子必须手 生个持油灯绕行遗体3次，当火葬柴堆被点燃时，D死8在如者长子必须将头发剃光，只在后脑勺留一小B撮，然后到河里沐浴净身。火葬结束后，死北美枫上f者骨灰会被扫到河 k4里，代表灵魂已经 y3脱离躯壳 生这、得到解脱。 来月 d年
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印度人的婚礼是社会地位的代表，也是一生中最重大的仪式。印度青年到了适婚年龄，都会由父母代为寻找社会阶级、语言、区域、背景相同，以及星相可以配合的对象。 v自
印度婚礼仪式相当繁琐，结婚之前，双方家长会透过充当媒人的祭司讨论嫁妆事宜，女方必须答应男女提出的嫁妆数量后，双方才选定黄道吉日、开始筹备婚礼。婚礼前一天，新娘必须根据传统化妆方式，开始抹油、沐浴、更衣、梳头、画眼线、抹唇砂、并且在脚上涂以红色、在额头点红色蒂卡、在下巴点黑痣，接着还要用植物染料在手脚上绘饰汉那图案，然后洒香水、配戴首饰和发饰，最后是把牙齿染黑、嚼槟榔、擦口红，才算大功告成。的9
婚礼当天，新郎官骑着一匹白马浩浩荡荡地来到新娘家。这时女方家里已经架起火坛，双方亲友在祭司念诵的吉祥真言中，绕行火坛祝祷。之后、新娘在女伴的簇拥下走到火坛前面，由祭司将新娘的纱丽和新郎的围巾系在一起，代表婚姻长长久久。时上
印度婚礼的晚宴是在新娘家里进行，一对新人坐在婚宴中接受亲友的祝福。婚礼当天晚上新郎是在新娘家过夜，翌日才将新娘迎娶回家。 s他
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普迦仪式（Puja）e是
普迦是印度教中向神祇膜拜的仪式，普迦仪式必须由祭司担任。仪式中信徒会将神像装饰后抬出寺庙游行庆祝，并且奉献鲜花、椰子、蒂卡粉……等供品。最后再由祭司手持油灯，在神像前面进行“阿拉提（arati）”。是
“阿拉提”的过程中，信徒用手轻轻覆盖祭司手中的灯火，然后在自己的眼睛上碰触一下，代表接受神祇赐予的力量。来 l无
通常在普迦仪式结束后，信徒可以分到在一些祭祀过的鲜花、蒂卡粉或水，称为“波拉沙达（Prasada）”。所以在印度，只要看到印度人从寺庙膜拜出来，额头上自几乎都涂有红色或白j色的粉末。年6b要
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传统服饰 d3年花以
在印度，可以由不同的服饰和装扮，看出当地人的宗教信仰、种族、阶级、区域等。D人r8
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印度男性多半包有头巾，这种头巾称为Turban。头巾有各式各样的包裹方法，其中锡克教男性头巾，具有特定样式。9 为来
根据传统，锡克人从小到大都必须蓄头发、留胡须，并且包着头巾。小孩头巾样式比较简单，只用黑布绑成发髻形状。成年人的头巾样式比较复杂，首先必须用黑色松紧带将长发束成发髻，然后再以一条长约3公尺的布，裹成头巾，样式为两边对衬成规则状。锡克人头巾色彩繁多，有的人甚至搭配衣服颜色。uD
印度男性多半穿著一袭宽松的立领长衫（Tunic），搭配窄脚的长裤（Dhoti），拉贾斯坦地区男性，裤子是以一条白色布块裹成的，头上的布巾，花样变化极多，色泽鲜明。要在
女性穿纱丽： 日7北美枫自的
印度妇女传统服饰是纱丽（Sari），纱丽是指一块长达15码以上的布料，穿著时以披裹的方式缠绕在身上。印度妇女擅长利用扎、围、绑、裹、缠、披……等技巧，使得纱丽在身上产生不同的变化。是 8小
拉贾斯坦妇女的纱丽较短，只有披覆在头上，但是彩色缤纷、镶有金银绣边。拉贾斯坦妇女的上衣，有点像似没有领子的中国凤仙装，下身是一条滚边的及地长裙。r
纱丽穿著方式：大
印度妇女传统服饰，是用一块长达3公尺的布包裹出来的，这块布称为纱丽（Sari）。印度纱丽的穿著方式变化繁多，不同的种族、区域、信仰，会有许多不同的色彩、质感和穿裹方式。印度妇女穿著纱丽时，上衣是一件短袖、露出肚脐的紧身衣（Choli），下身是一条及地的直筒衬裙（Ghagra）。 北美枫上
纱丽最基本的穿著方式，可以分为以下几个步骤:9
1. 首先拉住纱丽布左边一端，塞进右侧的衬裙裙头。大r
2. 将纱丽布由右至左环绕下围，约三、四圈。jwr
3. 接着用纱丽布在右前方折成四折，并且塞入裙头。 8c A
4. 然后将剩余布块，由左后方绕过右边腋下，披向左边肩膀上。Bi
5. 最后直接将纱丽布披在肩上、 生9或披覆在头上。不 有0
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自然资源4 何
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印度矿产资源丰富，铝土储量和煤产量均占世界第五位，云母出口量占世界出口量的60%。截至1996年底，印度主要资源可采储量估计为：煤463.89亿吨（不含焦煤），铁矿石97.54亿我为w吨，铝土22.53亿吨，铬铁矿1.24亿吨，锰矿石65不50万吨，锌589万吨，铜352万吨，铅136万吨，石北美文学网灰石684.77亿吨，磷酸盐8100万吨，黄金86吨，石油8.96山年何亿吨，天然气6970亿立方米。此外，还有云母 北美枫如、石膏、钻 来c石及钛、钍、铀等矿藏。j森林覆 C全盖率为21.9%。我了不
India (Hindi: भारत Bhārat; see also other Indian languages), officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh largest country by geographical area, the second most populous country, the most populous liberal democracy in the world.[disputed][13] Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi).[14] It borders Pakistan to the west;[15] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Bangladesh and Burma to the east. India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian Ocean. 为l我n
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Home to the Indus Valley Civilization and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[16] Four major world religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism an2d Sikhism originated here, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, C 个yhristianity and Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's diverse culture来. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company from 5the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Ki rqngdom from the mid-nineteenth century, Indi 们这a became a modern nation state in 1947 after a struggle for上 indepencdence that was mar说ked by widesprea全bcd nonviolent resistance.花了
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India is the world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the fourth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms have transformed it into the second fastest growing large economy;[17] however, it still suffers from high levels of poverty,[18] illiteracy, and malnutrition. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society, India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats.wD了
The name India (pronounced /ˈɪndiə/) is derived from Indus, which is derived from the Old Persian word Hindu, from Sanskrit Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the Indus River.[19] The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus.[20] The Constitution of India and common usage in various Indian languages also recognise Bharat (pronunciation (help·info), /bʰɑːrət̪/) as an official name of equal status.[21] Hindustan (/hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn/ (info)), which is the Persian word for “Land of the Hindus” and historically referred to northern India, is also occasionally used as a synonym for all of India.[22] ss 1国
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History 何是
Main articles: History of India and History of the Republic of India是花是
Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilization,[23] dating back to 3300 BCE in western India. It was followed by the Vedic period, which laid the foundations of Hinduism and other cultural aspects of early Indian society, and ended in the 500s BC. From around 550 BCE, many independent kingdoms and republics known as the Mahajanapadas were established across the country.[24]o
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Paintings at the Ajanta Caves in Aurangabad, Maharashtra, 6th century.In the third century BCE, most of South Asia was united into the Maurya Empire by Chandragupta Maurya and flourished under Ashoka the Great.[25] From the third century CE, the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient "India's Golden Age."[26][27] Among the notable South Indian empires were the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysalas, Pallavas, Pandyas, and Cholas. Science, engineering, art, literature, astronomy, and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. 国 8B
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Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, much of north India came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and later the Mughal Empire. Mughal emperors gradually expanded their Kingdoms to cover large parts of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms, such as the Vijayanagara Empire, flourished, especially in the south. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the Mughal supremacy declined and the Maratha Empire became the dominant power. From the sixteenth century, several European countries, including Portugal, the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom, started arriving as traders and later took advantage of the fractious nature of relations between the kingdoms to establish colonies in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the British East India Company.[28] A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, variously referred to as the India's First War of Independence or Sepoy Mutiny, seriously challenged the British Company's control but eventually failed. As a consequence, India came under the direct rule of the British Crown as a colony of the British Empire.0北美文学网
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Mahatma Gandhi (right) with Jawaharlal Nehru, 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947.During the first half of the twentieth century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress and other political organizations. In the 1920s and 1930, a movement led by Mahatma Gandhi, and displaying commitment to ahimsa, or non-violence, millions of protesters engaged in mass campaigns of civil disobedience.[29] Finally, on 15 August 1947, India gained independence from British rule, but was partitioned with independent governments for the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan in accordance to wishes of the Muslim League, along the lines of religion to create the Islamic nation state of Pakistan.[30] Three years later, on 26 January 1950, India became a republic and a new constitution came into effect.[8]n来r
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Since independence, India has suffered from religious violence, casteism and insurgencies in various parts, but has been able to control them through tolerance and constitutional reforms. Terrorism in India is also a major security problem, especially in Jammu and Kashmir, North-east India and recently in major cities like Delhi and Mumbai, 2001 Indian Parliament attack being the most prominent one. India has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which in 1962 escalated into the Sino-Indian War; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, 1971, and 1999. India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations (as part of British India). In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test.[31] This was followed by five more tests in 1998, making India a nuclear state.[31] Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms[32] have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, adding to its global and regional clout.[17]要z
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Governmente 来a
Main article: Government of India 日无i
National Symbols of India[33] 7
F 有llag Tricolour 的 8b
Emblem Sarnath Lion Capital
Anthem们 Jana ynGana Mana 花了
Song Vandē Mātaram D
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Animal Royal Bengal Tiger 北美文学网h如
Bird Indian Peafowl 8小了
Flower Lotus 来全
Tree Banyan 北美枫c月人不m
Fruit Mango 全自
Sport Field hockey 和
Calendar Saka 的
The Constitution of India, the longest and the most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on January 26, 1950.[34] The preamble of the constitution defines India as a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic.[35] India has a quasi-federal form of government[36] and a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-sotyle parlia何不以mentary system. It has three branches of governance: the Legi不slature, Exec年z为utive, and Jud 北美枫日iciary.的
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The President of India is the official head of state[37] elected indirectly by an electoral college[38] for a five-year term.[39][40] The Prime Minister is, however, the de facto head of government and exercises most executive powers.[37] The Prime Minister is appointed by the President[41] and, by convention, is the candidate supported by the party or political alliance holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.[37]北美枫d在们
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The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament, which consists of the upper house called the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the lower house called the Lok Sabha (House of People).[42] The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has 245 members serving staggered six year terms.[43] Most are elected indirectly by the state and territorial legislatures in proportion to the state's population.[43] The 543 of the Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual constituencies for five year terms.[43] The other two members are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community if, in his opinion, the community is not adequately represented.[43] v
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The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.[44]o7
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India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India, twenty-one High Courts, and a large number of trial courts.[45] The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving fundamental rights and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.[46] It is judicially independent,[45] and has the power to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the Constitution.[47] The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.[48] 有3
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Politics年hi
Main article: Politics of India上不国
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The North Block, in New Delhi, houses key government offices.India, at the federal level, is the most populous democracy in the world.[13][49] For most of its democratic history, the federal government has been led by the Indian National Congress (INC).[50] State politics have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)), and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the Janata Party won the election owing to public discontent with the "Emergency" declared by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In 1989, a Janata Dal-led National Front coalition in alliance with the Left Front coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.[51] 生s g
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The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the United Front coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) with several regional parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.[52] In the 2004 Indian elections, the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), supported by various left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP.[53]了
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Foreign relations and militaryc人t要
Main articles: Foreign relations of India and Indian Armed Forcesx v
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The Sukhoi-30 MKI is part of the Indian Air Force.Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of European colonies in Africa and Asia.[54] India is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement.[55] After the Sino-Indian War and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, India's relationship with the Soviet Union warmed at the expense of ties with the United States and continued to remain so until the end of the Cold War. India has fought four wars with Pakistan, primarily over Kashmir. India also fought and won an additional war with Pakistan for the liberation of Bangladesh in 1971. sf说b何
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In recent years, relations between the United States and India, have improved. Shown here are PM Manmohan Singh and President George W. Bush exchanging handshakes in March, 2006.In recent years, India has played an influential role in the ASEAN[56], SAARC, and the WTO.[57] India is a founding member and long time supporter of the United Nations, with over 55,000 Indian military and police personnel having served in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations deployed across four continents.[58] Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consis 1itently refused to sign the CTBT and the NPT, prefer天ring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear progr 北美枫大am. Recent overtures by the Indian government have streng北美文学网thened relations with the United States, China, and Pakistan. In the economi山山oc sphere, India has close relationships with other developi reng nations in South America, Ansia, and Africa.u他
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India maintains the third largest military force in the world, which consists of the Indian Army, Navy, and Air Force.[8] Auxiliary forces such as the Paramilitary Forces, the Coast Guard, and the Strategic Forces Command also come under the military's purview. The President of India is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. India became a nuclear power in 1974 after conducting an initial nuclear test, Operation Smiling Buddha. Further underground testing in 1998 led to international military sanctions against India, which were gradually withdrawn after September 2001. India maintains a "no first use" nuclear policy[59] and has a "strong nuclear non-proliferation record" according to the White House,[60] despite not being a signatory to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.7 sa
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Subdivisions说d一 国
Main article: Subdivisions of India要 生p
India is a federal republic of twenty-eight states and seven Union Territories.[50] All states, the union territory of Puducherry, and the National Capital Territory of Delhi have elected governments. The other five union territories have centrally appointed administrators and hence are under direct rule of the President. In 1956, under the States Reorganisation Act, states were formed on a linguistic basis.[61] Since then, this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is divided into basic units of government and administration called districts. There are nearly 600 districts in India.[62] The districts in turn are further divided into tehsils and eventually into villages.天
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Administrative divisions of India, including 28 states and 7 union territories.States: 日天 何
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Andhra Pradesh 了如
Arunachal Pradesh Ahe
Assam 9上
Bihar dA我h
Chhattisgarh h他个
Goa 大个
Gujarat sp时
Haryana 有e
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Jammu and Kashmir 说日C
Jharkhand Bn 何
Karnataka u v
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Madhya Pradesh 以天
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Manipur 以月
Meghalaya 花yy
Mizoram f 81
Nagaland 以春
Orissa 们北美文学网
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Rajasthan n这e v
Sikkim 8有
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Uttarakhand 春i
West Bengal j他
Union Ter l全ritories:u 来i
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Andaman and Nicobar Islands 0 何
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National Capital Territory of Delhi 个年了c
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Major Cities:[63] Mumbai • Delhi • Bangalore • Kolkata • Chennai • Ahmedabad • Hyderabad • (others)的9
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Main ar在ticle: G 来说eograp 生要hy of India天
See also: Geolog人1我ical history of India and Climate了u1 of India 北美文学网
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Topographic map of India.India, the major portion of the Indian subcontinent, sits atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the Indo-Australian Plate.[64]hzB9
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India's defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, began a northeastwards drift—lasting fifty million years—across the then unformed Indian Ocean.[65] The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the north and the north-east.[65] In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast through, which, having gradually been filled with river-borne sediment,[66] now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.[67] To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the Aravalli Range, lies the Thar Desert.[68] The original Indian plate now survives as peninsular India, the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India. These parallel ranges run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal-rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east.[69] To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the Deccan Plateau, is flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats respectively;[70] the plateau contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude[71] and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.[72] 8u天
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India's coast is 7,517 kilometers (4,671 mi) long; of this distance, 5,423 kilometers (3,370 mi) belong to peninsular India, and 2,094 kilometers (1,301 mi) to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.[14] According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of the following: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% mudflats or marshy coast.[14]来个
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Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, both of which drain into the Bay of Bengal.[73] Important tributaries of the Ganges include the Yamuna and the Kosi, whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding include the Godavari, the Mahanadi, the Kaveri, and the Krishna, which also drain into the Bay of Bengal;[74] and the Narmada and the Tapti, which drain into the Arabian Sea.[75] Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy Rann of Kutch in western India, and the alluvial Sundarbans delta, which India shares with Bangladesh.[76] India has two archipelagos: the Lakshadweep, coral atolls off India's south-western coast; and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a volcanic chain in the Andaman Sea.[77]是
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India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the monsoons.[78] The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar latitudes.[79][80] The Thar Desert plays a crucial role in attracting the moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.[78] Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: tropical wet, tropical dry, subtropical humid, and montane.[81]北美文学网
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Flora and fauna 北美枫B
Main articles: Flora of India and Fauna of Indiac v
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The Indian peacock is India's national bird.India, which lies within the Indomalaya ecozone, displays significant biodiversity. One of eighteen megadiverse countries, it is home to 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of all avian, 6.2% of all reptilian, 4.4% of all amphibian, 11.7% of all fish, and 6.0% of all flowering plant species.[82] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.[83][84] India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and North-East India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; the teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[85] Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment.D
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Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[86] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.[85] Consequently, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[82] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[87] These include the Asiatic Lion, the Bengal Tiger, and the 3是dIndian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near来-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treat上ed cattle.u9
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In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act[88] and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; in addition, the Forest Conservation Act[89] was enacted in 1980. Along with more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries, India hosts thirteen biosphere reserves,[90] four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves; twenty-five wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.[91] g他
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Main article: Economy of India 一说sc
See also: Economic development in India 上
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The Bombay Stock Exchange, in Mumbai, is Asia's oldest and India's largest stock exchange.For most of its post-independence history, India adhered to a quasi-socialist approach with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. However, since 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms and reduced government controls on foreign trade and investment.[32] Foreign exchange reserves have risen from US$5.8 billion in March 1991 to US$300 billion in March, 2008,[92] while federal and state budget deficits have decreased.[93] Privatization of publicly-owned companies and the opening of certain sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.[94] With a GDP growth rate of 9.4% in 2006-07, the economy is among the fastest growing in the world.[95] India's GDP in terms of USD exchange-rate is US$1.089 trillion. When measured in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP), India has the world's fourth largest GDP at US$4.726 trillion. India's per capita income (nominal) is US$977, while its per capita (PPP) is US$2700.我和天
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India has the world's second largest labour force, with 516.3 million people, 60% of whom are employed in agriculture and related industries; 28% in services and related industries; and 12% in industry.[8] Major agricultural crops include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. The agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles. Along with India’s fast economic growth comes its growing demand for energy. According to the Energy Information Administration, India is the sixth largest consumer of oil and third largest consumer of coal.[96]以人说国
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Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.[97] Income inequality in India is relatively small (Gini coefficient: 36.8 in year 2004[11]), though it has been increasing of late. Wealth distribution in India is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of the income.[98] Despite significant economic progress, a quarter of the nation's population earns less than the government-specified poverty threshold of $0.40 per day. In 2004–2005, 27.5% of the population was living below the poverty line.[18]h如时
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More recently, India has capitalised on its large pool of educated, English-speaking people, and trained professionals to become an important outsourcing destination for multinational corporations and a popular destination for medical tourism.[99] India has also become a major exporter of software as well as financial, research, and technological services. Its natural resources include arable land, bauxite, chromite, coal, diamonds, iron ore, limestone, manganese, mica, natural gas, petroleum, and titanium ore.[50]k 为花
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In 2007, estimated exports stood at US$140 billion and immports were around US$224.9 billion. Textiles, jewellery, engineeri北美文学网ng goods and software are major export commodities. While c如rude oil, machineries, fertilizers, and che了s时micals 来bare major imports. India's 个如 most important trading partners are the United St何cjates, the European Union, and China.l 一
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Main article: Dem 有Bogr不aphiucs of India l小
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Population density map of India.With an estimated population of 1.13 billion,[8] India is the world's second most populous country. Almost 70% of Indians reside in rural areas, although in recent decades migration to larger cities has led to a dramatic increase in the country's urban population. India's largest cities are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bengaluru (formerly Bangalore), Hyderabad and Ahmedabad.[50]o人3一
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India is the second most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse geographical entity after the African continent.[50] India is home to two major linguistic families: Indo-Aryan (spoken by about 74% of the population) and Dravidian (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families. Hindi, with the largest number of speakers,[100] is the official language of the union.[101] English, which is extensively used in business and administration, has the status of a 'subsidiary official language.'[6] The constitution also recognises in particular 21 other languages that are either abundantly spoken or have classical status. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652.[102]
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Over 800 million Indians (80.5%) are Hindu. Other religious groups include Muslims (13.4%), Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.9%), Buddhists (0.8%), Jains (0.4%), Jews, Zoroastrians, Bahá'ís and others.[103] Tribals constitute 8.1% of the population.[104]C我要
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India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males).[8] The state of Kerala has the highest literacy rate (91%);[105] Bihar has the lowest (47%).[106] The national human sex ratio is 944 females per 1,000 males. India's median age is 24.9, and the population growth rate of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births per 1,000 people per year.[8] gt
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2 Delhi Delhi 11,954,217 12 Lucknow Uttar Pradesh 2,621,063 来z
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4 Kolkata West Bengal 5,021,458 14 Indore Madhya Pradesh 1,768,303 不8 日f
5 Chennai Tam l花il Nadu 4,562,843 15 Patna如 Bih北美文学网ar 1,753,543 北美文学网
6 Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh 3,980,938 16 Bhopal Madhya Pradesh 1,712,355 j这
7 Ahmedabad Gujarat 3,867,336 17 Thane Maharashtra 1,673,465 sB
8 Pune Maharashtra 3,230,322 18 Ludhiana Punjab 1,662,325 r上
9 Surat Gujarat 3,124,249 19 Agra Uttar Pradesh 1,590,073 e
10 Kanpur Uttar Pradesh 3,067,663 20 Vadodara Gujarat 1,487,956 天w0
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Main article: Cu们lture of India了全e他
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The Taj Mahal in Agra was built by Shah Jahan as memorial to wife Mumtaz Mahal. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value".[108]India's culture is marked by a high degree of syncretism[109] and cultural pluralism.[110] It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants.上天
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Multicultural concerns have long informed India’s history and traditions, constitution and political arrangements.[111]花中了
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Indian architecture is one area that represents the diversity of Indian culture. Much of it, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad. Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation.他
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Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and region北美文学网al styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genr上es - North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditinons and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music. Highly regionalised forms of popular music includem一9 filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradi花tion of the bauls is a well-known fo以rm of the北美文学网 latter.他
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Indian dance too has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Bihar and Orissa and the ghoomar of Rajasthan. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of the state of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[112]
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Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[113] Often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[114] 生山 国
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Scene from Kalidasa's The Recognition of Śakuntalā as painted by Raja Ravi Varma.The Indian film industry is the largest in the world.[115] Bollywood, based in Mumbai, makes commercial Hindi films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.[116] Established traditions also exist in Bengali, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas.[117] 8i自
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The earliest works of Indian literature were transmitted orally and only later written down.[118] These included works of Sanskrit literature – such as the early Vedas, the epics Mahābhārata and Ramayana, the drama Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya[119] – and the Tamil language Sangam literature.[120] Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or English, Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize in 1913.是天
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Indian cuisine is characterized by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north).[121] Spices originally native to the Indian subcontinent that are now consumed world wide include black pepper; in contrast, hot chili peppers, popular across India, were introduced by the Portuguese.[122] 为何天
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Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.j是
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Many Indian festivals are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are Diwali, Thai Pongal, Holi, Onam, Vijayadashami, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, Buddha Jayanti and Vaisakhi.[123] India has three national holidays. Othern是1 sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are off北美枫时我icially observed in individual states. Religious practices zare an integrajl part of everyday life and are a very public affair.春
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Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, al人无和though urban families now prefer the nuclear family structure due to the so北美文学网cio-economic constraints imposed by traditional joint family s上ystem.如
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India's national sport is field hockey although cricket is the most popular sport in India. In some states, particularly those in the northeast and the states of West Bengal, Goa, and Kerala, football (soccer) is also a popular sport.[124] In recent times, tennis has also gained popularity. Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is also gaining popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandmasters. Traditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played nationwide. India is also home to the ancient martial arts, Kalarippayattu and Varma Kalai.y
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History Overviews Timeline · Economics · Linguistics · Maritime · Military · Science and technology · Mathematics · Astronomy · Metallurgy y3n和
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Pre-colonial Stone Age · Indus Valley Civilization · Indo-Aryan migration · Vedic period · Mahajanapadas · Magadha · Middle kingdoms · Islamic sultanates · Hoysala · Cholas · Kakatiya · Vijayanagara · Mughals · Marathas · European trade 个7
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Colonial East India Company · Plassey · 1857 Rebellion · British Raj · Railways · Economy · Army · Zamindari · Social changes · Political reforms · Princely states · Partition of Bengal · Independence movement · 1943 famine · World War II · Partition 大年为如
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Republic Integration · Non-Aligned Movement · Five-Year Plan · Sino-Indian War · Indo-Pakistani wars · Green Revolution · White Revolution · Naxal Insurgency · Smiling Buddha · Space program · The Emergency · Khalistan movement · Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) · Economic Reforms · Pokhran-II 来
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Government Agencies · Constitution · Foreign relations · Fundamental Rights, Principles and Duties · High Courts · Intelligence · Law · Law enforcement · Military · Missions · Parliament · Symbols · Supreme Court 以 一
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Politics Cens 1aorship · Elections · Human rights · Nationalism · Polit上ical parties (Congress • BJP • BSP • CPI • CPM • 何C了NCP) · Reservat 人eions · Scandals · Scheduled groups · Secul年时0arism 们和们
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Geography Climate · Climatic regions · Ecoregions · Fauna · Flora · Geology · Islands · Mountains · Rivers · Subdivisions (Cities • Districts • Regions • States and territories) · Valleys h在
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Economy Agriculture · Communications · Companies · Edu全cation · Exchanges (BSE • NSE) · Healthcare · Income 何n一· Poverty · Obesity · Standard of living · Reserve Bank · Rupee · Tourism · Labour · Forestry · Fishing · Livestock · Transport 月· Energy (Solar • Wind • Nuclear) 天
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Culture Arts and entertainment · Architecture · Cinema 4· Cuisine · Dance · Demographics · Dress · Folklore 9· Holidays · Languages · Literature · Media · Martial arts · Music · Religion · Sport · W北美文学网ine 北美枫和 日春
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Education Literacy · Department of Higher Education · Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) · Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) · Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan · University Grants Commission · All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) · Institutes of Technology / Management / Science · more 他
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Notes 一 d日
^ State Emblem -Inscription. National Informatmics Centre(NIC). Retrieved on 2007q-06-17. m无f
^ National Anthem - Know India portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC) (2007). Retrieved on 2007-08-31. s他
^ National Song - Know zIndia portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC) (2007). Retrieved on 2007-08-30. 何ue
^ CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY OF INDIA — VOLUME XII. Constituent Assembly of India: Debates. parliamentofindia.nic.in, National Informatics Centre (24 January 1950). Retrieved on 2007-06-29. “The composition consisting of the words and music known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it.” se们
^ The Union: Official Language. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. National Informatics Centre(NIC) (2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-24. noo
^ a b Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L., dated 27 April, 1960. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. National Informatics Centre(NIC). Retrieved on July 4, 2007. j 一
^ Official Languages Resolution, 1968, para. 2. 北美文学网r
^ a b c d e f g h CIA Factbook: India. CIA Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved on 2007-03-10. 是
^ a b India at a Glance. Know India Portal. National Informatics Centre(NIC). Retrieved on 2007-12-07. e
^ CIA - zThe World Factbook - India 天北美枫
^ a b Field Listing - Distribution of family income - Gini index. The World Factbook. CIA (15 May 2008). Retrieved on 2008-06-06. 0hu
^ Total Area of India (PDF). Country Studies, India. Library of Congress – Federal Research Division (December 2004). Retrieved on 2007-09-03. “The country’s exact size is subject to debate because some borders are disputed. The Indian government lists the total area as 3,287,260 square kilometers and the total land area as 3,060,500 square kilometers; the United Nations lists the total area as 3,287,263 square kilometers and total land area as 2,973,190 square kilometers.” v g
^ a b Country profile: India. BBC (9 January 2007). Retrieved on 2007-03-21. 一
^ a b c Kumar et al. 2006, p. 531 是C
^ Footnote: The Government of India also considers Afghan 有xistan to be a bordering country. This is because it considers the entire state of Jammu and Kashmir to be a part of India including the portion bordering Afghanistan. A ceasefire sponsored by the United Nations in 1948 froze the positions of Indian and Pakistani held territory. As a consequence国, the region beorde山uBring Afghanistan is in Pakistan-administered teqrritory. 一t4
^ Oldenburg, Phillip. 2007. "India: History," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007© 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation. y全
^ a b India is the second fastest growing economy. Economic Research Service (ERS). United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved on 2007-08-05. 了北美文学网
^ a b Poverty estimates for 2004-05, Planning commission, Government of India, March 2007. Accessed: August 25, 2007 天 国
^ "India" 生我, Oxford English Dic的tionary, second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford Univezrsity Press 我来自z
^ Basham, A. L. (2000). The Wonder That Was India. South Asia Books. ISBN 0283992573. 为D
^ Official name of the Union. Courts Informatics Division, National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Comm. and Information Tech. Retrieved on 2007-08-08. “Name and territory of the Union- India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.” Af
^ Hindustan. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. (2007). Retrieved on 2007-06-18. y
^ Introduction to the Ancient Indus Valley. Harappa (1996). Retrieved on 2007-06-18. 大B2
^ Krishna Rmeddy (2003). Indian History. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, p. A107. ISBN 0070花483698. q天
^ Jona Lendering. Maurya dynasty. Retrieved on 2007-06-17. hy 北美枫i
^ Gupta period haso been described as the Golden Age of Indian history. National In何f来formatics Centre (NIC). Ret自ri月eved on 2007-10-q03. 一C 1花
^ Heitzman, James. (2007). "Gupta Dynasty," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007 如
^ History : Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947). National Informatics Centre (NIC). Retrieved on 2007-10-03. “And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established.” g
^ (1997) Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited 有q, p. 455. ISBN 0-7513-5911-4. 个7j
在^ (1997) Concise Encyclopedia. Dorling Kindersley Limited, p. 322自. ISBN 0-7513-591我风风1-4. 北美枫m
^ a b India Profile. Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) (2003). Retrieved on 2007-06-20. A北美枫
^ a b Montek Singh Ahluwalia (2002). "Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked?" (MS Word). Journal of Economic Perspectives. Retrieved on 2007-06-13. 时这
^ National Symbols of India. High Commission of India, London. Retrieved on 2007-09-03. x s小
^ Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Longest Constitutional Document", Constitutional Government in India, 2nd edition, S. Chand, 4. ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved on 2007-10-31. ic
^ Dutt, Sagarika (1998). "Identities and the Indian state: An overview". Third World Quarterly 19 (3): 411–434. doi:10.1080/01436599814325. at p. 421 北美文学网
^ Wheare, K.C. (1964). Federal Government, 4th edition, Oxford University Press, 28. 8f 国
^ a b c Sharma, Ram (1950). "Cabinet Government in India". Parliamentary Affairs 4 (1): 116–126. e
^ Election of President. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. “The President shall be elected by the members of an electoral college” 个
^ Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Devel月opment of Its Laws and Constitution, 2nd edition, Stevens and Sons, 112. k
^ Tenure of President's office. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. “The President shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office” 7全
^ Appointment of Prime Minister and Council of Ministers. The Constitution Of India. Constitution Society. Retrieved on 2007-09-02. “The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.” 时 d他
^ Gledhill, Alan (1964). The Republic of India: The Devel4opment of Its Laws and Constitution, 2nd edition, Stevens and Sons, 127. mf以4
^ a b c d Our Parliam全ent A brief description of the Indian Parliament. www.parli北美枫无tamentofindia.gov.in. Retrieved on 2007-06-16. 说天
^ Matthew, K.M.. Manorama Yearbook 2003. Malayala Manorama, pg 524. ISBN 8190046187. ex
^ a b Neuborne, Burt (2003). "The Supreme Court of India". International Journal of Constitutional Law 1 (1): 476–510. doi:10.1093/icon/1.3.476. at p. 478.
^ Supre3k无me Court of India. Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court. Natioxnal Informat2ics Centre. Retrieved on 2007-190-21. t
^ Sripati, Vuayashri (1998). "Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950-2000)". American University International Law Review 14 (2): 413–496. at pp. 423-424 A 何
^ Pylee, Moolamattom Varkey (2004). "The Union Judiciary: The Supreme Court", Constitutional Government in India, 2nd edition, S. Chand, 314. ISBN 8121922038. Retrieved on 2007-11-02. 春y
^ World's Largest Democracy to Reach One Billion Persons on Independence Day. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. United Nations: Population Division. Retrieved on 2007-12-06. h6 82
^ a b c d e Country Profile: India (PDF). Library of Congress - Federal Research Division (December 2004). Retrieved on 2007-06-24. 何o
^ Bhambhri, Chandra Prakash (1992). Politics in India 1991-92. Shipra Publications, 118, 143. ISBN 978-8185402178. B年y
^ Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy. The effective space of party competition. London School of Economics and Political Science. Retrieved on 2007-10-01. 一
^ 生4 Hermann, Kulke; Dietm北美文学网ar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge, 384. 了s花ISBN 978-04北美文学网15329194. 是4
^ Significance of the Contribution of India to the Struggle Against Apartheid1 by M. Moolla
^ History of Non Aligned Movement. Retrieved on 2007-08-23. Aj
^ http://www.heritage.org/Research/AsiaandthePacific/bg2008.cfm 来花t
^ http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/genf/50205.pdf
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