:::::::::: 诗海以色列 ::::::::::

就算我是盗墓者吧，而我把挖掘出来的所有财宝————

————都奉献给您!

中国加拿大美国英国爱尔兰比利时荷兰法国西班牙葡萄牙意大利希腊奥地利匈牙利德国瑞士罗马尼亚俄罗斯波兰克罗地亚捷克芬兰瑞典挪威冰岛阿兹台克爱斯基摩阿根廷哥伦比亚巴西委内瑞拉乌拉圭智利秘鲁墨西哥尼加拉瓜圣卢西亚波多黎各希伯来巴比伦古阿拉伯古波斯印度斯里兰卡尼泊尔以色列伊拉克黎巴嫩日本朝鲜|韩国越南泰国菲律宾马来西亚印度尼西亚埃及突尼斯阿尔及利亚尼日利亚塞内加尔南非新西兰古巴澳大利亚巴基斯坦

以色列

强烈要求阅读以色列诗人

　　以色列国 The State of Israel.代码IL。以色列（希伯来语：מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל 希伯来语中意为“神的勇士”，阿拉伯语:دَوْلَةْ إِسْرَائِيل‎）是一个位于西亚黎凡特地区的国家，位于地中海的东南方向。以色列北靠黎巴嫩、东濒叙利亚和约旦、西南边则是埃及。

　　风

　　独立日

　　５月１４日（１９４８年）。以色列于１９４８年５月１４日宣布独立。以色列虽然在日常生活中采用公历，但是民族节日均采用犹太历。因此，每年的独立日不一定是公历的５月１４日。 CC

　　时

　　国庆日何

　　５月１４日（１９４８年）是

　　 s一

　　国旗y9

　　以色列国旗呈长方形，长与宽之比约为３∶２。旗地为白色，上下各有一条蓝色宽带。蓝白两色来自犹太教徒祈祷时用的披肩的颜色。白色旗面正中，是一个蓝色的六角星，这是古以色列国王大卫王之星，象征国家的权力。北美文学网来天

　　hc

　　国徽t

　　以色列国徽为长方形盾徽。蓝色盾面上有一个七杈烛台，据记载此烛台为耶路撒冷圣殿中点燃祭坛的物件。烛台两旁饰以橄榄枝，象征犹太人对和平的渴望。烛台下方用希伯莱文写着“以色列国”。

　　要

　　国歌大

　　

　　《希望之歌》是f

　　cx

　　国鸟

　　何

　　戴胜

　　x7

　　人口以

　　

　　直到2006年，以色列人口统计处列出以下三个大都会地区：特拉维夫（3,040,400人口）、海法（996,000人口）、以及贝尔谢巴（Beersheba，531,600人口）。首都耶路撒冷则有人口719,900人。希伯莱语为国语，与阿拉伯语均为官方语言，通用英语。犹太教为国教，居民中约８５％信奉犹太教，１３％信奉伊斯兰教。以色列是世界上唯一一个以犹太人为主体的国家。9天

　　北美文学网时D

　　首都的

　　是天

　　建国时在特拉维夫(Tel Aviv)，１９５０年迁往耶路撒冷 (Jerusalem)，未得到普遍承认。１９８０年７月３０日以色列议会通过法案，宣布耶路撒冷是以色列“永恒的与不可分割的首都”，但它的政府所在地仍在特拉维夫。对于耶路撒冷的地位和归属，阿拉伯国家同以色列一直有争议，阿拉伯国家要求“以色列撤出1967年以来它所占领的一切阿拉伯领土，包括阿拉伯的耶路撒冷（指东耶路撒冷）。绝大多数同以有外交关系的国家仍把使馆设在特拉维夫。花4

　　

　　国家政要是

　　总统希蒙·佩雷斯 (Shimon Peres)，２００７年６月当选；总理埃胡德·奥尔默特(Ehud Olmert) ，２００６年１月，沙龙病重住院后暂时代行总理职权，４月，被任命为临时总理，５月宣誓就任；工党主席、国防部长埃胡德·巴拉克 (Ehud Barak) ，２００７年６月任职；利库德集团主席本雅明·内塔尼亚胡 (Benjamin Netanyahu) 。

　　我如

　　自然地理e 何

　　根据１９４７年联合国关于巴勒斯坦分治决议的规定，以色列国的面积为１．４９万平方公里。位于亚洲西部，是亚、非、欧三大洲结合处。沿海为狭长平原，东部有山地和高原。属地中海型气候。 D

　　以色列北靠黎巴嫩、东濒叙利亚和约旦、西南边则是埃及。以色列西边有着与地中海相连的海岸线、在南边则有埃拉特的海湾（又被称为亚喀巴湾）。 d和

　　以色列可以分为四个不同的区域：海岸平原、中部丘陵、约旦大裂谷、以及内盖夫沙漠。地中海沿岸的海岸平原从北部的黎巴嫩边界一直延伸至南部的加沙，该地区土壤肥沃而潮湿，是农业和水果栽种的重要地带。海岸平原的东部是中央的高原地带，高原地带的北边是加利利山脉的山丘，更南边的地区是由许多小型而肥沃的溪谷地区所组成的撒马里亚山脉；再往南则是荒芜的朱代（Judea）山丘地区。中央高原地带的东部是约旦大裂谷，属于长达6,500公里的东非大裂谷的一部分。在以色列境内的裂谷是由约旦河、加利利海、以及死海所构成。内盖夫沙漠由大约12,000平方公里的沙漠组成，占据了以色列的一半土地面积，在地理上内盖夫沙漠是属于西奈半岛的延伸。 8生

　　在1967年的六日战争中，以色列攻克了约旦王国的约旦河西岸地区、叙利亚的戈兰高地、和埃及的加沙地带（当时被埃及占领）与西奈半岛。以色列在1982年从西奈半岛撤出了所有的驻军和殖民地，并在2005年9月12日完全撤出了加沙地带，不过西岸地区和加沙地带的归属问题目前仍未解决。自从1967年以来耶路撒冷东部一直在以色列司法、行政管辖范围之内，戈兰高地自从1981年以来也属以色列管辖，虽然它们都不属以色列的正式领土。

　　以色列国的主权范围，若去除所有以色列在1967年攻克的领土，总计为20,777平方公里（1%水域面积）。而若加上以色列民法管辖范围内的领域，包括耶路撒冷东部和戈兰高地在内，则是22,145平方公里，水面积不到1%。而全部由以色列控制的领土，包括军事控制和巴勒斯坦政府自治的西岸地区，则是28,023平方公里。北美枫

　　北美文学网3

　　重要节日 wq

　　安息日（每周五日落至周六日落）以h有

　　犹太新年（约公历9月）要

　　赎罪日（约公历10月） s山

　　住棚节（约公历10月）花国

　　逾越节（约公历4月）

　　大屠杀纪念日（约公历5月） d7

　　独立日（约公历5月）h37

　　c 日6

　　航空

　　空运是以色列与外部世界进行联系的重要交通手段。从1948年起，国家就开辟了空中航线，以色列国家航空公司通航四大洲，并定期有班机通往纽约和欧洲。在耶路撒冷与埃拉特，均建有现代化机场，在利达建有国际机场。1989年，乘包机到达以色列的旅客达54万人。80年代末，90年代初，以色列空运客流量比50年代初增加100倍以上。以

　　以色列同中国建交后，旅游业务得以开发。1992年7月，以色列航空公司与中国国际旅行总社达成一项合作开发旅游市场协议。为了发展旅游，从9月3日起，以色列航空公司开始从特拉维夫至北京直接通航。特拉维夫直达北京航线，不仅为以色列和欧洲游客前往中国提供了方便，而且为东南亚游客访问地中海东岸国家开辟了最佳航线。 g

　　以色列亚细亚航空公司开办以下定期航线：y0

　　1.耶路撒冷往特拉维夫、海法、罗斯佩那（Rlsh Pina）及埃拉特；

　　2.特拉维夫往耶路撒冷、罗斯佩那、埃拉特及马撒大（Masada）；是

　　3.海法往耶路撒冷、特拉维夫、埃拉特；9

　　4.埃拉特入耶路撒冷、特拉维夫、海法；C

　　5.马撒大往特拉维夫。

　　 d来风

　　公路网络 C

　　以色列国幅员不大，从东部的耶路撒冷驱车到西海岸的特拉维夫仅用1个多小时即可到达。这决定了以色列的交通以公路为主。它是在英国对巴勒斯坦实行委任统治时期优质公路网的基础上建立起来的。现在以色列境内的公路从城市到乡村形成了一个完整的网络系统。公路一般都是双车道，沿着海岸有一条四车道公路，将特拉维夫和海法联接起来，并通往耶路撒冷和比尔谢巴。据统计，90年代初，以色列全国公路总长度为1.3万多公里，同50年代初比较，公路长度成倍增长。何

　　在安息日，耶路撒冷市内的一切交通机关，全都停止工作，饭店也悉数关门。这一天，观光客最好勿搭车前往正统犹太教徒的居住区。否则，那些犹太教徒会怒不可遏地向车上的人投掷石头。 j

　　

　　

　　时

　　二、政治不来大

　　[编辑本段]j

　　以色列是议会制国家，议会是最高权力机构，拥有立法权，负责制定和修改国家法律，对政治问题表决，批准内阁成员的任命并监督政府工作，以及选举总统和议长。议员候选人以政党为单位竞选。以色列没有宪法，只有议会法、总统法和内阁法等基本法。总统是象征性的国家元首，职能基本上是礼仪性的。议会有权解除总统职务。内阁向议会负责。个

　　以色列是中东地区唯一一个自由民主制国家，公民拥有各式各样的政治权利和公民自由。

　　北美文学网了

　　三、经济f

　　[编辑本段]来

　　５０多年来，土地贫瘠、资源短缺的以色列，坚持走科技强国之路，重视教育和人才的培养，使经济得以较快发展，１９９９年人均国民生产总值高达１. ６万美元。以色列高新技术产业发展举世瞩目，特别是在电子、通讯、计算机软件、医疗器械、生物技术工程、农业以及航空等方面拥有先进的技术和优势。以色列地处沙漠地带边缘，水资源匮乏。严重缺水使以色列在农业方面形成了特有的滴灌节水技术，充分利用现有水资源，将大片沙漠变成了绿洲。不足总人口５％的农民不仅养活了国民，还大量出口优质水果、蔬菜、花卉和棉花等。是

　　以色列被视为是中东地区里经济发展、商业自由、新闻自由、和整体人类发展度最高的国家。7

　　jBb

　　四、外交

　　[编辑本段]以

　　开展全方位外交。保持与西方国家传统的友好关系；维护与美战略盟友地位；积极发展与独联体各国和东欧国家关系；推动中东和平进程，力图实现同阿拉伯国家的和解；拓展与非洲、亚洲各国的关系。大

　　花eD

　　与中国关系

　　１９５０年１月９日，以色列宣布承认中华人民共和国。１９９２年１月２４日，以色列与中国建立大使级外交关系。何

　　是

　　7

　　五、历史大一

　　[编辑本段]

　　以色列历史悠久，是世界主要宗教犹太教、伊斯兰教和基督教的发源地。犹太人远祖是古代闪族的支脉希伯莱人。公元前１３世纪末开始从埃及迁居到巴勒斯坦，曾先后建立希伯莱王国及以色列王国。 A

　　以色列最初是指一个民族而非地名，可查最早的记载出现在公元前1211年。在过去三千年的历史中，犹太人视以色列地为自己的民族和精神生活的核心，称之为“圣地”或“应许之地”。以色列在犹太教中具有特别的含义，包括圣殿遗迹和相关的宗教礼仪，都是现代犹太教传统的重要基础。从公元前1200年开始，一系列的犹太人王朝在这一地区存在了超过一千余年。 A

　　经历过亚述、巴比伦、波斯、希腊、罗马、拜占庭等古国的统治，犹太人在这一地区逐渐衰落并遭驱逐。尤其是在公元132年的一次大规模起义遭到镇压后，罗马帝国将犹太人驱逐出这一地区，将地名改为“叙利亚-巴勒斯坦”，企图抹灭犹太人千年来与这片土地相连的痕迹。虽然如此，仍有小部分犹太人一直留在巴勒斯坦，但主要的犹太人口从以色列南部移至了北部。犹太教最重要的两本经籍《密西拿》和《塔木德》经也是在这段时期写成。公元638年，穆斯林从拜占庭帝国夺取了该地区的控制权，之后数个穆斯林国家统治过这个地区；包括了倭马亚王朝、阿拔斯王朝，以及花剌子模和蒙古，在1260年至1516年间由马木鲁克统治，接著在1517年成为奥斯曼帝国一个省份。 v9

　　了j

　　锡安主义和犹太人回归我个上

　　数个世纪以来，许许多多流亡海外的犹太人一直试图返回以色列。18世纪便有数波小型的回归潮，从数百到上千人不等。在1878年，佩塔提克瓦出现了第一个大型的犹太人农场殖民区。第一次大规模的回归浪潮则始于1881年，散居在世界其他地区的犹太人为了逃避迫害，开始回流到巴勒斯坦，即古犹太国之地。犹太人从奥斯曼帝国和阿拉伯人手中购买土地并且定居。随着犹太居民的增多，他们与阿拉伯人之间的关系也日趋紧张。

　　1896年，维也纳记者和剧作家西奥多·赫茨尔发起锡安主义运动（又称“犹太复国主义运动”），号召全世界犹太人回归故土，恢复本民族的生活方式。1897年8月29日在瑞士巴塞尔，他召集了第一届“世界锡安主义大会”，大会决议建立“一个得到公众承认的、有法律保障的家园(或国家)”。“犹太国民基金”和“巴勒斯坦土地开发公司”等相应机构成立，帮助世界各地的犹太人向巴勒斯坦移民。u

　　锡安主义运动的发展推动了第二次回归浪潮（1904－1914年），约有四万名犹太人返回定居。1917年，英国外长贝尔福发表《贝尔福宣言》：“英王陛下政府赞成在巴勒斯坦建立一个犹太人的民族国家，并将尽最大努力促其实现”。1920年，国际联盟委托英国管辖巴勒斯坦。1922年英国将托管地划分为两部分：东部（现约旦）为阿拉伯人居住地，西部为犹太居民区。大

　　第一次世界大战后，犹太人掀起了第三和第四次回归浪潮。在1929年爆发的一场巴勒斯坦暴动中，阿拉伯人杀死了133名犹太人。接著在1936年-1939年又有数场暴动发生。对此英国在1939年颁布了一份白皮书，限制犹太人的移民数量至75,000人，并且限制犹太人购买土地。这份白皮书被许多犹太人和锡安主义者视为是对犹太人的背叛，并且认为那违背了贝尔福宣言。阿拉伯人也并没有就此平息，他们希望完全停止犹太人的移民。不大

　　1933年，纳粹在德国执政，掀起第五次犹太人回归浪潮。1940年，犹太人已占当地居民总数的30%。后来在欧洲发生的犹太人大屠杀，进一步推动了犹太人回归。1944至1948年之间，愈20万犹太人通过各种途径辗转来到巴勒斯坦地区。第二次世界大战结束后，巴勒斯坦地区已经有60万犹太居民。0y

　　0

　　复国 v

　　1947年，鉴于犹太人与阿拉伯人之间的暴力冲突不断升级，和平努力受到挫败，英国政府决定从巴勒斯坦托管地脱身。犹太人的移民数量自从19世纪末以来一直稳定增长，受到二战中的犹太人大屠杀影响，犹太人复国的理念也获得越来越多的国际支持。联合国成立了“巴勒斯坦专门委员会”，1947年11月联合国大会表决了《1947年联合国分治方案》，33国赞成（包括美国和苏联），13国反对，10国弃权，通过决议：将巴勒斯坦地区分为两个国家，犹太人和阿拉伯人分别拥有大约55%和45%的领土，耶路撒冷被置于联合国的管理之下，以期避免冲突。了上

　　1947年11月29日，联合国通过分治方案的当日，大卫·本-古理安接受了该方案，但被阿拉伯国家联盟断然拒绝。阿盟委员会高层下令对以色列的犹太平民展开为期三天的暴力袭击，攻击建筑、商店、以及住宅区，紧接著犹太人组织的地下民兵部队展开还击，这些战斗很快便蔓延为大规模的冲突，继而引发了1948年的以色列独立战争。 g

　　1948年5月14日，在英国的托管期结束前一天的子夜，以色列国正式宣布成立。在1949年1月25日全国选举中，有85%的合格选民参加了投票，接着有120个议席的第一届议会开会。两位曾领导以色列建成国家的人成为该国的领袖，犹太人代办处领导人大卫·本-��里安当选首任总理；世界犹太复国主义组织领导人哈伊姆·魏兹��由议会选为首任总统。1949 j

　　年5月11日，以色列取得联合国的席位，成为第59个会员国。

　　

　　1948年独立战争个9

　　在以色列建国之后，埃及、伊拉克、约旦、叙利亚、以及黎巴嫩向以色列宣战，开始了1948年的以色列独立战争。北边的叙利亚、黎巴嫩和伊拉克军队都在接近边界的地方被阻挡下来，来自东方的约旦军队则攻下耶路撒冷的东部，并且对城市的西部展开攻击。不过，犹太人的民兵部队成功的阻挡了约旦军队，而地下的国民军组织部队（Irgun）也阻止了来自南方的埃及军队。从6月开始，联合国宣布了一个月的停火令，在这段期间里以色列国防军正式成立。在数个月的战斗后，双方在1949年达成一则停火协议并划清暂时的边界，这条边界线被称为“绿线”（Green Line）。以色列在约旦河的西方获得了额外的23.5%的管辖领域，约旦则占有以色列南部一块山地区域和撒马里亚，后来那里被称为西岸地区。埃及在沿海地区占有一小块的土地，后来被称为加沙地带。 dk

　　大量的阿拉伯人口逃离了新成立的犹太人国家，巴勒斯坦人将此次流亡称为“大灾难”（النكبة），预计有400,000至900,000名巴勒斯坦难民流亡，联合国估计有711,000人。以色列与阿拉伯国家之间未解决的冲突、以及巴勒斯坦难民的问题一直持续至今。随著1948年的战争，西岸地区和加沙地带的犹太人口开始撤回以色列，大量来自阿拉伯国家的犹太人难民使得以色列的人口遽增了两倍。在接下来几年里将近850,000名瑟法底犹太人从阿拉伯国家逃离或遭驱逐，其中约有600,000人迁移至以色列，其他的人则移民至欧洲和美国。 s以

　　

　　50年代和60年代日b

　　在1954年至1955年间，担任以色列总理的摩西·夏里特（Moshe Sharett）试图轰炸埃及未遂而爆发丑闻，造成以色列在政治上蒙羞。埃及在1956年国有化了苏伊士运河，英国和法国对此相当不满。以色列在遭到一连串阿拉伯地下民兵部队的袭击后，秘密的与英法两国结盟，并且对埃及宣战。在苏伊士运河危机后，三个国家遭到联合国的谴责，以色列被迫从西奈半岛撤军。 Aj

　　在1955年，大卫·本-古理安再次成为以色列总理，并且一直任职到1963年才辞职。在古理安辞职后，列维·艾希科尔（Levi Eshkol）继任了总理。

　　在1961年，纳粹的战争犯、也是欧洲犹太人大屠杀主谋之一的阿道夫·艾希曼在阿根廷的布宜诺斯艾利斯遭到以色列的摩萨德（Mossad）情报局干员逮捕，并且被送回以色列接受审判。艾希曼成为以色列历史上唯一一个遭到法庭判决死刑的罪犯。来

　　在政治舞台上，以色列和阿拉伯国家的关系在1967年5月再次紧绷。叙利亚、约旦、和埃及透露了开战的意图，埃及并且驱逐了在加沙地带的联合国维和部队。埃及违反了之前立定的条约、并且封锁了以色列战略要地的堤蓝海峡，接著又在以色列边界部署大量的战车和战机，以色列于是以埃及挑衅为由在6月5日对埃及展开先发制人的攻势。在这场六日战争中，以色列击败了所有阿拉伯邻国的军队，并且在空军战场上获得完全的胜利。以色列一口气夺下了整个西岸地区、加沙地带、西奈半岛、和戈兰高地，1949年划定的绿线则变成以色列管辖国内领土和占领区域的行政分界线。后来在签订一则和平协议后，以色列将西奈半岛还给了埃及。u

　　在战争中以色列空军误炸了一艘美军的情报船自由号（USS Liberty），造成34名美军死亡。美国和以色列的调查总结认为这场意外是因为自由号的辨识困难而造成的误击事件。 8人

　　在1969年，以色列的第一名（也是至今唯一一名）女性总理梅尔夫人当选。

　　 g

　　70年代

　　1968年至1972年这段期间被称为消耗战争（War of Attrition），以色列和叙利亚、埃及间的边界频繁爆发许多小规模的冲突。除此之外，在1970年代早期，巴勒斯坦武装部队对以色列和各国的犹太人展开了规模空前的恐怖攻击，在1972年夏季奥林匹克运动会中爆发了慕尼黑惨案，巴勒斯坦的武装民兵挟持以色列的代表团成员作为人质，最后所有人质皆遭杀害。以色列对此展开了报复性的“上帝之怒行动”（Operation Wrath of God），由一群以色列摩萨德情报局的干员在世界各地行刺那些筹划慕尼黑惨案的幕后凶手。f

　　最后，在1973年10月6日，正值犹太人传统的赎罪日那天，埃及和叙利亚对以色列发起了突袭攻势。尽管阿拉伯国家在战争初期成功打击了准备不足的以色列军队，埃及和叙利亚最终仍被以色列击退。战后的几年局势变的较为平静，以色列和埃及终于得以达成和平协议。i

　　在1974年，伊扎克·拉宾继承梅尔夫人成为第五任总理。1977年的国会选举成为以色列政治历史上的主要转折点，从1948年来一直支配以色列政坛的工党联盟（המערך）遭到梅纳赫姆·贝京领导的联合党击败，这次选举在以色列还被称为是一场“革命”。花个花w

　　接著，在当年的11月，埃及的总统萨达特史无前例的拜访了以色列，在以色列国会进行演讲，这是以色列建国以来第一次获得阿拉国国家的承认。以色列军队的后备军官也组成和平运动以支持这次谈和。在萨达特拜访之后，两国间进行的和平谈判最后签下了大卫营和约。在1979年3月，贝京和沙达特在美国华盛顿特区达成以色列-埃及和平条约。随著条约的签订，以色列从西奈半岛撤军，并且撤离了自从1970年代开始在那里建立的移民区。以色列也同意依据1949年划定的绿线让巴勒斯坦获得自治权。北美文学网自e

　　7

　　80年代 g

　　在1981年6月7日，以色列空军轰炸了伊拉克在奥西拉克（Osirak）建立的核子反应炉，阻止了伊拉克制造核武器的企图，这次任务又被称为巴比伦行动。

　　在1982年，以色列对黎巴嫩发动了一场攻势，卷入自从1975年以来一直进行的黎巴嫩内战。以色列的开战理由为保护以色列在北方的殖民区，当时殖民区经常受到来自黎巴嫩的恐怖攻击。在建立了四十公里的障碍区后，以色列国防军继续前进，甚至攻下了首都贝鲁特。以色列军队将巴勒斯坦解放组织逐出了黎巴嫩，迫使巴解转移基地至突尼斯。由于无法承担战争带来的压力，总理贝京在1983年辞职，由伊扎克·沙米尔（Yitzhak Shamir）继任。以色列最后在1986年撤出了大部分在黎巴嫩的军队，边界的缓冲地带则一直被维持，直到2000年以色列进行单方面的撤军。 g

　　在1980年代里，原本由伊扎克·沙米尔领导的右派政府被左派的西蒙·佩雷斯取代。佩雷斯从1984年开始担任总哩，但在1986年又被沙米尔取代，沙米尔达成了一个政党联盟的协议。在1987年爆发的巴勒斯坦大起义引燃了占领区域的一连串暴动，在暴动后沙米尔再次于1988年的选举中连任总理职位。C

　　

　　90年代春f

　　在波斯湾战争中，虽然以色列不是反伊拉克的联盟国之一、也没有实际参与伊拉克战事，以色列仍遭到39枚飞毛腿导弹击中。导弹并没有直接杀害任何以色列的公民，倒是有一些人因为不正确使用预备的防毒面具而死亡，除此之外一名以色列人遭到爱国者导弹碎片击中而丧命。在战事中，以色列也向在西岸和加沙地带的巴勒斯坦人提供防毒面具，以免他们遭伊拉克的生化武器攻击。尽管如此，巴解仍然表示支持萨达姆政权，一些巴勒斯坦居民甚至还站在屋顶上替来袭的飞毛腿导弹欢呼，虽然最后他们仍使用了以色列人提供的防毒面具。日这

　　在1990年代早期，苏联的大量犹太人开始移民至以色列，依据以色列的回归法，这些人在抵达以色列时便能取得以色列公民权。大约有380,000人在1990-1991年抵达以色列。虽然以色列大众最初相当支持回归法，新移民造成的许多问题被工党作为选战中的把柄，批评执政的联合党没有解决他们的工作和住房问题。结果在1992年的选举中，新移民们大量投票给工党，使得左派再次抬头。我生以

　　在选举之后，伊扎克·拉宾成为了总理。在选举中工党曾经承诺将会大为改善以色列的国内治安和与阿拉伯国家的关系。到了1993年底，以色列政府抛弃了1991年的马德里协议框架，改与巴解签订奥斯陆协议（Oslo Accords）。在1994年，约旦成为继埃及之后第二个承诺与以色列和平共处的阿拉伯国家。一

　　最初以色列大众广泛支持奥斯陆协议，然而在协议签订之后以色列仍然持续遭到哈马斯武装团体的频繁攻击，协议受到的支持也开始大量减少。在1995年11月4日，拉宾遭到一名极端的以色列民族主义者刺杀。c

　　由于拉宾的遇刺，大众对于奥斯陆协议的观感也稍有好转，大为提升了西蒙·佩雷斯的支持度，使他赢得了1996年的大选。不过，新的一波自杀炸弹攻势加上阿拉法特赞美炸弹客的声明，使得公众舆论再次扭转，并且在1996年5月输给了联合党的本雅明·内塔尼亚胡。风

　　虽然内塔尼亚胡被视为是奥斯陆协议的坚定反对者，他仍然决定从希伯伦（Hebron）撤军，并且签下了怀伊备忘录（Wye River Memorandum），给予巴勒斯坦民族权力机构更大的自治权力。在内塔尼亚胡任内巴勒斯坦团体对以色列平民的袭击活动大为减少，然而他的联合政府仍然在1999年垮台。在1999年选举中工党的埃胡德·巴拉克以大幅票数差距击败内塔尼亚胡而继任总理。不u

　　C

　　2000年后时北美枫

　　巴拉克在2000年决定单边的从黎巴嫩撤军，这次撤军也是为了阻挠真主党对以色列的攻击，迫使他们不得不跨越以色列边界才能发动攻击。巴拉克和亚西尔·阿拉法特曾在美国总统比尔·克林顿的斡旋下于2000年在戴维营进行协商，然而协商最后失败了，巴拉克提出的条件是一个由73%西岸地区和100%加沙地带组成的巴勒斯坦国家，并且在10至25年时间内将西岸地区的巴勒斯坦领域扩展至90%（排除耶路撒冷郊区则是94%），但阿拉法特拒绝这个提议。何来

　　2003年6月4日，在乔治·沃克·布什主持下，巴勒斯坦权力机构主席马赫姆得·阿巴斯和以色列前总理沙龙于约旦相会。在谈判破裂后，巴勒斯坦开始了第二次的暴动，被称为阿克萨群众起义，暴动开始的时间就发生在以色列反对派领袖艾里尔·沙龙访问耶路撒冷圣殿山（Temple Mount）之后不久。协商的失败以及新战争的爆发使得许多以色列人对巴拉克政府感到失望，并且也使和平协议的支持度大减。 s了

　　在一场总理的特别选举后，艾里尔·沙龙在2001年3月成为了新的总理，稍后又在2003年的选举中当选了连任。沙龙开始从加沙地带进行单边的撤军，这次撤军在2005年8月至9月间实行完成。 dk

　　以色列也在西岸地区建立了围墙，目的是为了保护以色列免遭武装巴勒斯坦团体的攻击。为了建立长达681公里的围墙，接近围墙的缓冲地区也连带的减少了9.5%的西岸地区面积，使得巴勒斯坦居民的经济状况遭遇困难。围墙的建立遭致了国际间的许多批评，也遭到一些以色列极左派的批评，不过，围墙的确有效的减少了对以色列平民的恐怖攻击事件。x我n

　　在艾里尔·沙龙严重中风之后，总理权力转移给了艾胡德·奥尔默特。在2006年4月14日，在前进党赢得了大选后，奥尔默特当选为以色列总理。奥尔默特的前进党也在2006年的2006年的选举中赢得了多数派席位。w日

　　在2006年6月28日，哈玛斯的民兵部队从加沙地带挖地道潜入以色列境内攻击以色列国防军的据点，俘虏了一名以色列士兵必且杀害了其他两名。以色列对此展开了夏雨行动，大量轰炸哈玛斯目标以及其他桥梁、道路、以及发电站。以色列也派军占领此地区。t我天

　　2006年6月13日爆发的以黎冲突发生在以色列北部和黎巴嫩地区，主要是介于真主党和以色列之间的冲突。冲突始于真主党之前在一次跨越边界的恐怖袭击行动中杀害了八名以色列士兵并且俘虏其他两名，以色列认为黎巴嫩政府必须对这次攻击负起责任，因此从海上和空中对黎巴嫩展开轰炸，并且进军黎巴嫩南部。真主党继续使用火箭攻击以色列北部，并且以游击队的打带跑战术袭击以色列军队。最后以色列在2006年8月14日达成一则停火令。这场冲突杀害了一千名黎巴嫩平民、440名真主党民兵、以及119名以色列士兵，也对黎巴嫩城市的基础建设造成了庞大损害。要r

　　rj

　　9

　　日Br

　　六、司法

　　[编辑本段]9

　　u

　　以色列的司法部门是由三层架构的法庭组成。在最低层次的是地方法院，分布于大多数的都市。第二层则是地区法院，同时负起上诉法院和地方法院的功能，分布于五座城市：耶路撒冷、特拉维夫、海法、贝尔谢巴、以及拿撒勒。7

　　最上层的法院则是以色列最高法院，位于耶路撒冷，目前的最高法院首席大法官是Dorit Beinisch。最高法院是最高的上诉法院，也身兼高等法院（HCQJ）的功能，高等法院主要是负责解决个别公民对於法院提出的请愿，对这些请愿的回覆通常是由政府部门进行（包括以色列国防军）。这样的请愿可能使得高等法院作出决定，指导政府部门改正行政的方式。天是

　　一般的法官是由国会组成的委员会、最高法院的法官、以及以色列律师行会的会员联合选出的。法律规定要求法官在70岁时退休。最高法院的首席大法官由司法部长所批准，负责指派所有法庭的常务官员。f

　　以色列并不是国际刑事法院的成员，因为担心若加入成员将会导致以色列在有争议的领地的殖民者会遭到起诉.

　　国

　　以色列并没有一部明文写成的宪法。因此以色列政府的运作都是依据以色列国会颁布的法规进行，包括了一系列的「以色列基本法」（Basic Laws），目前为止总计有14条基本法。这些基本法被计画用作未来宪法颁布的基础。在2003年中旬，国会的宪法、法律、和司法委员会开始起早一份正式的宪法[24]，直到2007年初为止宪法的起草过程仍在进行[25]。以

　　以色列的法律系统混合了英美普通法系、欧陆法系和犹太法典的影响，另外也受到以色列建国宣言的影响。0

　　如同英美的法系，以色列的法律体制建立在先前判例的原则上。以色列的法庭采取抗辩制度，而不是审讯制度，当事人（原告和被告）必须自行将证据带到法庭上，法庭并不会进行任何独立的调查。何大

　　iu

　　以色列最高法院的建筑。如同欧陆法系，以色列并不采取陪审团制度。案件是由专业的法官进行判决。许多主要的以色列法规（例如契约法）也都受到欧陆法系的影响，是根基於民法的原则上。以色列的法规并不是由法典组成，而是由单独的法规构成。不过，一套民法的法典在最近完成了，并且预估将会被正式采用。个

　　宗教法庭（犹太教、伊斯兰、和基督教）则在婚姻的离婚判决上拥有独占的法律权利。

　　Israel (Hebrew: יִשְרָאֵל‎, Yisra'el; Arabic: إسرائيل‎, Isrā'īl) officially the State of Israel (Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְרָאֵל‎ (help·info), Medinat Yisra'el; Arabic: دَوْلَةْ إِسْرَائِيل‎, Dawlat Isrā'īl), is a country in Western Asia located on the eastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan in the east, and Egypt on the southwest, and contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area.[5] The West Bank and Gaza Strip are also adjacent. With a population of about 7.28 million[3], the majority of whom are Jews, Israel is the world's only Jewish state.[6] It is also home to Arab Muslims, Christians, Druze, and Samaritans, as well as other religious and ethnic minority groups.以 s9

　　不7

　　The modern state of Israel has its roots in the Land of Israel (Eretz Yisrael), a concept central to Judaism for over three thousand years. After World War I, the League of Nations approved the British Mandate of Palestine with the intent of creating a "national home for the Jewish people."[7] In 1947, the United Nations approved the partition of the Mandate of Palestine into two states, one Jewish and one Arab.[8] The Arab League rejected the plan, but on May 14, 1948, the Jewish provisional government declared Israel's independence. The new country's victory in the subsequent Arab-Israeli War expanded the borders of the Jewish state beyond those in the UN Partition Plan. Since then, Israel has been in conflict with many of the neighboring Arab countries, resulting in several major wars and decades of violence that continue to this day.[9] Since its foundation, Israel's boundaries and even the State's very right to exist have been subject to dispute, especially among its Arab neighbors. However, Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, and efforts are being made to reach a permanent accord with the Palestinians.C春

　　要上

　　Israel is a representative democracy with a parliamentary system and universal suffrage.[10][11] The Prime Minister serves as head of government and the Knesset serves as Israel's legislative body. In terms of nominal gross domestic product, the nation's economy is estimated as being the 44th-largest in the world.[12] Israel ranks high among Middle Eastern countries on the bases of human development,[13] freedom of the press,[14] and economic competitiveness.[15] Jerusalem is the country's capital, seat of government, and largest city, while Israel's main financial center is Tel Aviv.r

　　一

　　Over the past three thousand years, the name "Israel" has meant in common and religious usage both the Land of Israel and the entire Jewish nation. The name originated from a verse in the Bible (Genesis, 32:28) where Jacob is renamed Israel after successfully wrestling with an angel of God.[16] Commentators differ on the meaning of the name. Some say the name comes from the verb śarar ("to rule, be strong, have authority over"), thereby making the name mean "God rules" or "God judges".[17] Other possible meanings include "the prince of God" (from the King James Version) or "El fights/struggles".[18] Regardless of the precise meaning of the name, the biblical nation fathered by Jacob thus became the "Children of Israel" or the "Israelites".是

　　

　　The first historical mention of the word "Israel" is in the Merneptah Stele of ancient Egypt (dated the late 13th century BCE), which appears to refer to a people.[19] The modern country was named Medinat Yisrael, or the State of Israel, after other proposed names, including Eretz Israel ("the Land of Israel"), Zion, and Judea, were rejected.[20] In the early weeks of independence, the government chose the term "Israeli" to denote a citizen of Israel, with the formal announcement made by Minister of Foreign Affairs Moshe Sharett.[21] 何7

　　u

　　天

　　History 为我

　　Main article: History of Israel 日u

　　Further information: History of the Jews in the Land of Israel 为de

　　

　　Early roots g

　　Further information: History of ancient Israel and Judah y

　　要了

　　Roman garrison ruins at the foot of MasadaThe Land of Israel, known in Hebrew as Eretz Yisrael, has been sacred to the Jewish people since the time of the biblical patriarchs: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Scholars have placed this period in the early 2nd millennium BCE.[22] According to the Torah, the Land of Israel was promised to the Jews, by God, as their homeland,[23][24] and the sites holiest to Judaism are located there. According to the traditional view, around the 11th century BCE, the first of a series of Israelite kingdoms and states established rule over the region; these Israelite kingdoms and states ruled intermittently for the following one thousand years.[25]大

　　

　　Between the time of the Jewish kingdoms and the 7th-century Muslim conquests, the Land of Israel fell under Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek, Roman, Sassanian, and Byzantine rule.[26] Jewish presence in the region dwindled after the failure of the Bar Kokhba revolt against the Roman Empire in 132 CE and the resultant large-scale expulsion of Jews. In 628/9, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius conducted a massacre and expulsion of the Jews, at which point the Jewish population probably reached its lowest point. Nevertheless, a continuous Jewish presence in Palestine remained. Although the main Jewish population shifted from the Judea region to the Galilee,[27] the Mishnah and part of the Talmud, among Judaism's most important religious texts, were composed in Israel during this period.[28] The Land of Israel was captured from the Byzantine Empire around 636 CE during the initial Muslim conquests. Control of the region transferred between the Umayyads,[29] Abbasids,[30] and Crusaders over the next six centuries, before falling in the hands of the Mamluk Sultanate, in 1260. In 1516, the Land of Israel became a part of the Ottoman Empire, which ruled the region until the 20th century.[31]u

　　

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　　Zionism and the British Mandate

　　Main articles: History of Zionism, Aliyah, British Mandate of Palestine, and British Conflict with ZionismD

　　See also: 1922 Text: League of Nations Palestine Mandate, Jewish refugees, and Timeline of Zionism t

　　Aliyah to Israel and settlement 的

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　　Pre-Zionist Aliyah 国风

　　The Return to Zion w和

　　The Old Yishuv 北美枫

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　　Prior to the founding of Israel 日月 8何

　　First Aliyah 了

　　Second Aliyah 何

　　During WWI 不不0

　　Third Aliyah

　　Fourth Aliyah c

　　Fifth Aliyah

　　During and after WWII s是

　　Berihah 个

　　

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　　After the founding of Israel 是

　　Operation Magic Carpet 国一

　　Operation Ezra and Nehemiah x大

　　Jewish exodus from Arab lands

　　Polish aliyah in 1968 f

　　Aliyah from the Soviet Union in the 1970s x

　　Aliyah from Ethiopia 我C了

　　Aliyah from the Commonwealth of Independent States in the 1990s 了

　　Aliyah from Latin America in the 2000s 天为个

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　　Related topics 要

　　Jewish history • Jewish diaspora • History of the Jews in the Land of Israel • Yishuv • History of Zionism (Timeline) • Revival of Hebrew language • Religious Zionism • Haredim and Zionism • Anti-Zionismjx

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　　v • d • e 个C

　　Jews living in the Diaspora have long aspired to return to Zion and the Land of Israel.[32] That hope and yearning was articulated in the Bible,[33] and is a central theme in the Jewish prayer book. Beginning in the twelfth century, Catholic persecution of Jews led to a steady stream leaving Europe to settle in the Holy Land, increasing in numbers after Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492.[34] During the 16th century large communities struck roots in the Four Holy Cities, and in the second half of the 18th century, entire Hasidic communities from eastern Europe settled in the Holy Land.[35]个

　　国我n

　　的x

　　Theodor Herzl, visionary of the Jewish StateThe first large wave of modern immigration, known as the First Aliyah (Hebrew: עלייה), began in 1881, as Jews fled pogroms in Eastern Europe.[36] While the Zionist movement already existed in theory, Theodor Herzl is credited with founding political Zionism,[37] a movement which sought to establish a Jewish state in the Land of Israel, by elevating the Jewish Question to the international plane.[38] In 1896, Herzl published Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State), offering his vision of a future state; the following year he presided over the first World Zionist Congress.[39] 日了何

　　

　　The Second Aliyah (1904–1914), began after the Kishinev pogrom. Some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine.[36] Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainly Orthodox Jews,[40] but those in the Second Aliyah included socialist pioneers who established the kibbutz movement.[41] During World War I, British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour issued what became known as the Balfour Declaration, which "view[ed] with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people."[42] The Jewish Legion, a group of battalions composed primarily of Zionist volunteers, assisted in the British conquest of Palestine. Arab opposition to the plan led to the 1920 Palestine riots and the formation of the Jewish organization known as the Haganah (meaning "The Defense" in Hebrew), from which the Irgun and Lehi split off.[43]

　　是

　　In 1922, the League of Nations granted the United Kingdom a mandate over Palestine for the express purpose of "placing the country under such political, administrative and economic conditions as will secure the establishment of the Jewish national home".[44] The population of the area at this time was predominantly Muslim Arab, while the largest urban area in the region, Jerusalem, was predominantly Jewish.[45]B花

　　一 s7

　　Jewish immigration continued with the Third Aliyah (1919–1923) and Fourth Aliyah (1924–1929), which together brought 100,000 Jews to Palestine.[36] In the wake of the Jaffa riots in the early days of the Mandate, the British restricted Jewish immigration and territory slated for the Jewish state was allocated to Transjordan.[46] The rise of Nazism in the 1930s led to the Fifth Aliyah, with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This influx resulted in the Arab revolt of 1936–1939 and led the British to cap immigration with the White Paper of 1939. With countries around the world turning away Jewish refugees fleeing the Holocaust, a clandestine movement known as Aliyah Bet was organized to bring Jews to Palestine.[36] By the end of World War II, Jews accounted for 33% of the population of Palestine, up from 11% in 1922.[47][48]是x

　　

　　c上

　　Independence and first years以

　　Main articles: History of Israel, 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and Declaration of Independence (Israel)天

　　See also: Israel and the United Nations, Jewish exodus from Arab lands, 1948 Palestinian exodus, and Sh'erit ha-Pletah

　　 g

　　David Ben-Gurion proclaiming Israeli independence on May 14, 1948 below a portrait of Theodor HerzlAfter 1945 the United Kingdom became embroiled in an increasingly violent conflict with the Jews.[49] In 1947, the British government withdrew from commitment to the Mandate of Palestine, stating it was unable to arrive at a solution acceptable to both Arabs and Jews.[50] The newly-created United Nations approved the UN Partition Plan (United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181) on November 29, 1947, dividing the country into two states, one Arab and one Jewish. Jerusalem was to be designated an international city – a corpus separatum – administered by the UN to avoid conflict over its status.[51] The Jewish community accepted the plan,[52] but the Arab League and Arab Higher Committee rejected it.[53]

　　w来了

　　Regardless, the State of Israel was proclaimed on May 14, 1948, one day before the expiry of the British Mandate for Palestine.[54] Not long after, five Arab countries – Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq – attacked Israel, launching the 1948 Arab-Israeli War,[54]although conflict between the Jews and Arabs of Palestine started earlier. After a year of fighting, a ceasefire was declared and temporary borders, known as the Green Line, were established. Jordan annexed what became known as the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip. Israel was admitted as a member of the United Nations on May 11, 1949.[55]. During the war 711,000 Arabs, according to UN estimates, or about 80% of the previous Arab population, fled the country.[56] The fate of the Palestinian refugees today is a major point of contention in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.[57][58]x

　　不山日国

　　In the early years of the state, the Labor Zionist movement led by Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion dominated Israeli politics.[59][60] These years were marked by mass immigration of Holocaust survivors and an influx of Jews persecuted in Arab lands. The population of Israel rose from 800,000 to two million between 1948 and 1958.[61] Most arrived as refugees with no possessions and were housed in temporary camps known as ma'abarot. By 1952, over 200,000 immigrants were living in these tent cities. The need to solve the crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign a reparations agreement with West Germany that triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea of Israel "doing business" with Germany.[62] 为C上

　　D

　　During the 1950s, Israel was frequently attacked by Palestinian fedayeen, mainly from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip.[63] In 1956, Israel joined a secret alliance with The United Kingdom and France aimed at recapturing the Suez Canal, which the Egyptians had nationalized (see the Suez Crisis). Despite capturing the Sinai Peninsula, Israel was forced to retreat due to pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights in the Red Sea and the Canal.[64] 何

　　

　　At the start of the following decade, Israel captured Adolf Eichmann, an architect of the Final Solution hiding in Argentina, and brought him to trial.[65] The trial had a major impact on public awareness of the Holocaust,[66] and to date Eichmann remains the only person sentenced to death by Israeli courts.[67]w以

　　Bswe

　　w一x

　　Conflicts and peace treaties

　　Main articles: Arab-Israeli conflict and Israeli-Palestinian conflict

　　Arab countries continually refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Jewish state, and Arab nationalists led by Nasser called for the destruction of Israel.[68] In 1967, Egypt, Syria, and Jordan massed troops close to Israeli borders, expelled UN peacekeepers and blocked Israel's access to the Red Sea. Israel saw these actions as a casus belli for a pre-emptive strike that launched the Six-Day War, Israel achieved a decisive victory in which it captured the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights.[69] The 1949 Green Line became the administrative boundary between Israel and the occupied territories. Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged, incorporating East Jerusalem. The Jerusalem Law, passed in 1980, reaffirmed this measure and reignited international controversy over the status of Jerusalem.

　　天j

　　日春

　　Prime Minister Golda Meir, who resigned following the Yom Kippur WarThe failure of the Arab states in the 1967 war led to the rise of Arab non-state actors in the conflict, most importantly the PLO which was committed to what it called "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland".[70][71] In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launched a wave of attacks[72] against Israeli targets around the world,[73] including a massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1972 Summer Olympics. Israel responded with Operation Wrath of God, in which those responsible for the Munich massacre were tracked down and assassinated.[74]个

　　e

　　On October 6, 1973, Yom Kippur, the holiest day in the Jewish calendar, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israel. The war ended on October 26 with Israel successfully repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but suffering great losses.[75] An internal inquiry exonerated the government of responsibility for the war, but public anger forced Prime Minister Golda Meir to resign.

　　u g

　　The 1977 Knesset elections marked a major turning point in Israeli political history as Menachem Begin's Likud party took control from the Labor Party.[76] Later that year, Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat made a trip to Israel and spoke before the Knesset in what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state.[77] In the two years that followed, Sadat and Menachem Begin signed the Camp David Accords and the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.[78] Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over an autonomy for Palestinians across the Green Line, a plan which was never implemented. Begin's government encouraged Israelis to settle in the West Bank, leading to friction with the Palestinians in those areas.h了C

　　为j

　　In 1982, Israel intervened in the Lebanese Civil War to destroy the bases from which the Palestine Liberation Organization launched attacks and missiles at northern Israel. That move developed into the First Lebanon War.[79] Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but maintained a borderland buffer zone until 2000. The First Intifada, a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule,[80] broke out in 1987 with waves of violence occurring in the occupied territories. Over the following six years, more than a thousand people were killed in the ensuing violence, much of which was internal Palestinian violence.[81] During the 1991 Gulf War, the PLO and many Palestinians supported Saddam Hussein and Iraqi missile attacks against Israel.[82][83]

　　花自

　　为他一

　　Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat shake hands, presided over by Bill Clinton, at the signing of the Oslo Accords, September 13, 1993In 1992, Yitzhak Rabin became Prime Minister following an election in which his party promoted compromise with Israel's neighbors.[84][85] The following year, Shimon Peres and Mahmoud Abbas, on behalf of Israel and the PLO, signed the Oslo Accords, which gave the Palestinian National Authority the right to self-govern parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[86] A declared intent was recognition of Israel's right to exist and an end to terrorism.[87] In 1994, the Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace was signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize relations with Israel.[88]

　　一的

　　Arab public support was affected by the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre, continuation of settlements,[89] and checkpoints, and the deterioration of economic conditions. Israeli public support for the Accords waned as Israel was struck by Palestinian suicide attacks. The November 1995 assassination of Yitzhak Rabin by a far-right-wing Jew, as he left a peace rally, shocked the country.c

　　j 一

　　At the end of the 1990s, Israel, under the leadership of Benjamin Netanyahu, withdrew from Hebron,[90] and signed the Wye River Memorandum, giving greater control to the Palestinian National Authority.[91]

　　 8小

　　Ehud Barak, elected Prime Minister in 1999, began the new millennium by withdrawing forces from Southern Lebanon and conducting negotiations with Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat and U.S. President Bill Clinton at the July 2000 Camp David Summit. During the summit, Barak offered a plan for the establishment of a Palestinian state, but Yasser Arafat rejected it.[92] After the collapse of the talks, Palestinians began the Second Intifada. 为一

　　 8无我以

　　Ariel Sharon became the new prime minister in a 2001 special election. During his tenure, Sharon carried out his plan to unilaterally withdraw from the Gaza Strip and also spearheaded the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier.[93] In January 2006, after Ariel Sharon suffered a severe stroke which left him in a coma, the powers of office were transferred to Ehud Olmert.我和

　　国

　　In July 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's northern border communities and a cross border abduction of two Israeli soldiers sparked the Second Lebanon War.[94][95] The clashes were brought to end a month later by a ceasefire (United Nations Resolution 1701) brokered by the United Nations Security Council.r A

　　y

　　On November 27, 2007, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert and Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas agreed to negotiate on all issues and strive for an agreement by the end of 2008. In April 2008, Syrian President Bashar Al Assad told a Qatari newspaper that Syria and Israel had been discussing a peace treaty for a year, with Turkey as a go-between. This was confirmed by Israel in May 2008. [96]

　　天

　　 g

　　Geography and climate了

　　Main article: Geography of Israel花不

　　

　　The SakhneIsrael is located at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan to the east, and Egypt to the southwest. The sovereign territory of Israel, excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967 Six-Day War, is approximately 20,770 square kilometers (8,019 sq mi) in area, of which two percent is water.[2] The total area under Israeli law, including East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights, is 22,072 square kilometers (8,522 sq mi).[97]个

　　为们一

　　The total area under Israeli control, including the military-controlled and partially Palestinian-governed territory of the West Bank, is 27,799 square kilometers (10,733 sq mi).[98]花5

　　

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　　Judean hillsDespite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from the Negev desert in the south to the mountain ranges of the Galilee, Carmel, and the Golan in the north. The Israeli Coastal Plain on the shores of the Mediterranean is home to seventy percent of the nation's population. East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, which forms a small part of the 6,500-kilometer (4,040-mi) Great Rift Valley. The Jordan River runs along the Jordan Rift Valley, from Mount Hermon through the Hulah Valley and the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea, the lowest point on the surface of the Earth.[99] Further south is the Arabah, ending with the Gulf of Eilat, part of the Red Sea. Unique to Israel and the Sinai Peninsula are makhteshim, or erosion cirques.[100] The largest makhtesh in the world is Ramon Crater in the Negev,[101] which measures 40 kilometers by 8 kilometers (25 mi by 5 mi).[102]C

　　上国

　　Temperatures in Israel vary widely, especially during the winter. The more mountainous regions can be windy, cold, and sometimes snowy; Mount Hermon's peak is covered with snow most of the year and Jerusalem usually receives at least one snowfall each year.[103] Meanwhile, coastal cities, such as Tel Aviv and Haifa, have a typical Mediterranean climate with cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The highest temperature in the continent of Asia (53.7°C or 129 °F) was recorded in 1942 at Tirat Zvi kibbutz in the northern parts of the Jordan-valley.[citation needed] From May to September, rain in Israel is rare.[104][105] With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water-saving technologies, including drip irrigation.[106] Israelis also take advantage of the considerable sunlight available for solar energy, making Israel the leading nation in solar energy use per capita.[107]j

　　北美枫

　　C是

　　Government and politics

　　Main article: Politics of Israel

　　See also: Human rights in Israel, List of political parties in Israel, and Israeli judicial system

　　 u

　　The Knesset building, home of the Israeli parliamentIsrael operates under a parliamentary system as a democratic country with universal suffrage.[2] The President of Israel is the head of state, but his duties are largely ceremonial.[108] A Parliament Member supported by a majority in parliament becomes the Prime Minister, usually the chairman of the largest party. The Prime Minister is the head of government and head of the Cabinet.[108][109] Israel is governed by a 120-member parliament, known as the Knesset. Membership in the Knesset is based on proportional representation of political parties.[110] Parliamentary elections are held every four years, but the Knesset can dissolve the government at any time by a no-confidence vote. The Basic Laws of Israel function as an unwritten constitution. In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an official constitution based on these laws.[2][111]

　　天 g

　　Wikinews has related news: t

　　Shimon Peres discusses the future of Israel 大

　　Office of the President of Israel in 2007.Israel has a three-tier court system. At the lowest level are magistrate courts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them are district courts, serving both as appellate courts and courts of first instance; they are situated in five of Israel's six districts. The third and highest tier in Israel is the Supreme Court, seated in Jerusalem. It serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and the High Court of Justice. In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against decisions of state authorities.[112][113] Israel is not a member of the International Criminal Court as it fears the court would be biased against it due to political pressure.[114] Israel's legal system combines English common law, civil law, and Jewish law.[2] It is based on the principle of stare decisis (precedent) and is an adversarial system, where the parties in the suit bring evidence before the court. Court cases are decided by professional judges rather than juries.[112] Marriage and divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts: Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian. A committee of Knesset members, Supreme Court justices, and Israeli Bar members carries out the election of judges.[115]0风

　　h日

　　春

　　Districts of Israel: (1) Northern, (2) Haifa, (3) Center, (4) Tel Aviv, (5) Jerusalem, (6) SouthernThe Israeli Basic Law: Human Dignity and Liberty seeks to defend human rights and liberties. Israel is the only country in the region ranked "Free" by Freedom House based on the level of civil and political rights; the "Israeli Occupied Territories/Palestinian Authority" was ranked "Not Free."[116] Similarly, Reporters Without Borders rated Israel 50th out of 168 countries in terms of freedom of the press and highest among Southwest Asian countries.[117] Nevertheless, groups such as Amnesty International[118] and Human Rights Watch[119] have often disapproved of Israel's human rights record in regards to the Arab-Israeli conflict. Israel's civil liberties also allow for self-criticism, from groups such as B'Tselem, an Israeli human rights organization.[120] Israel's system of socialized medicine, which guarantees equal health care to all residents of the country, was anchored in law in 1995.[121] i

　　re

　　Administrative districts A

　　Main article: Districts of Israel

　　See also: List of cities in Israel

　　The State of Israel is divided into six main administrative districts, known as mehozot (מחוזות; singular: mahoz) – Center, Haifa, Jerusalem, North, Southern, and Tel Aviv Districts. Districts are further divided into fifteen sub-districts known as nafot (נפות; singular: nafa), which are themselves partitioned into fifty natural regions.[122] For statistical purposes, the country is divided into three metropolitan areas: Tel Aviv and Gush Dan (population 3,150,000), Haifa (population 996,000), and Beersheba (population 531,600).[123] However, Israel's largest city, both in population and area,[124] is Jerusalem with 732,100 residents in an area of 126 square kilometers (49 sq mi). Tel Aviv, Haifa, and Rishon LeZion rank as Israel's next most populous cities, with populations of 384,600, 267,000, and 222,300 respectively.[125] s时

　　大

　　

　　Occupied territoriesu来

　　Main article: Israeli-occupied territoriesu风

　　Further information: Israeli settlement and Political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip v

　　

　　Map of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, 2007The Israeli-occupied territories are the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights. They are areas Israel captured from Jordan, and Syria during the Six-Day War. The term was also used to describe the Sinai Peninsula, which was returned to Egypt as part of the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty.

　　了

　　The term of 'Israeli-occupied territories' was also used to encompass the Gaza strip which was occupied by Egypt and captured by Israel in 1967. In 2005, Israel removed all of its residents and forces in the Gaza Strip and four settlements in the West Bank as part of its unilateral disengagement plan. Israel still controls Gaza's airspace and sea access. Israel also regulates Gaza's travel and trade with the rest of the world[126]. Inner control of the area is in the hands of the Hamas government.

　　t

　　Following Israel's capture of these territories, settlements consisting of Israeli citizens were established within each of them. Israel has applied civilian law to the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem, incorporating them into its territory and offering their inhabitants Israeli citizenship. In contrast, the West Bank has remained under military occupation, and is widely seen – by Israel, the Palestinians, and the international community alike – as the site of a future Palestinian state. Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis of United Nations Security Council Resolution 242, which calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for peaceful actions from Arab states (see Land for peace).[127][128][129]时x

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　　The West Bank has a population consisting primarily of Arab Palestinians, including historic residents of the territories and refugees of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War.[130] From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were under Israeli military administration. Since the Israel-PLO letters of recognition, most of the Palestinian population and cities have been under the internal jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority, and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has on several occasions redeployed its troops and reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. In response to increasing attacks as part of the Second Intifada, the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier,[131] which opponents note is partially built within the West Bank.[132]j

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　　Foreign relations7

　　Main article: Foreign relations of Israel要

　　风

　　Chaim Weizmann, the first President of Israel, presenting U.S. President Harry S. Truman with a Torah scroll in 1948Israel maintains diplomatic relations with 161 countries and has 94 diplomatic missions around the world.[133] Only three members of the Arab League have normalized relations with Israel; Egypt and Jordan signed peace treaties in 1979 and 1994, respectively, and Mauritania opted for full diplomatic relations with Israel in 1999. Two other members of the Arab League, Morocco and Tunisia, which had some diplomatic relations with Israel, severed them at the start of the Second Intifada in 2000.[134] Since 2003, however, ties with Morocco have been on the upswing, and Israel's foreign minister has visited the country.[135] Under Israeli law, Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Yemen are enemy countries[136] and Israeli citizens may not visit them without permission from the Ministry of the Interior.[137] Since 1995, Israel has been a member of the Mediterranean Dialogue, which fosters cooperation between seven countries in the Mediterranean Basin and the members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.[138]来要

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　　The United States, Turkey, Germany, the UK and India are among Israel's closest allies. The United States was the first country to recognize the State of Israel, followed by the Soviet Union. It may regard Israel as its primary ally in Southwest Asia, based on shared political and religious values.[139] Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991,[140] Turkey has cooperated with the State since its recognition of Israel in 1949. However, Turkey's ties to the other Muslim-majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab states to temper its relationship with Israel.[141] Germany's strong ties with Israel include cooperation on scientific and educational endeavors and the two states remain strong economic and military partners.[142][143] India established full diplomatic ties with Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military and cultural partnership with the country since then.[144] The UK has kept full diplomatic relations with Israel since its formation having had two visits from heads of state in 2007. It also has a strong trade relationship, Israel being the 23rd largest market. Relations between the two countries were also made stronger by former prime minister Tony Blair's efforts for a two state resolution. The UK is seen as having a "natural" relationship with Israel on account of the British Mandate of Palestine.[145] Iran had diplomatic relations with Israel under the Pahlavi dynasty[146] but withdrew its recognition of Israel during the Iranian Revolution.[147]春要

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　　Military大

　　Main article: Israel Defense Forces

　　See also: Israeli Security Forces and Nuclear weapons and Israel 风

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　　Israel Army SoldierThe Israel Defense Forces consists of the Israeli Army, Israeli Air Force and Israeli Sea Corps. It was founded during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War out of paramilitary organizations – chiefly the Haganah – that preceded the establishment of the state.[148] The IDF also draws upon the resources of the Military Intelligence Directorate (Aman), which works with the Mossad and Shabak.[149] The involvement of the Israel Defense Forces in major wars and border conflicts has made it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.[150][151]h2

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　　何j

　　Arrow missile test launchThe majority of Israelis are drafted into the military at the age of eighteen. Men serve three years and women serve two years.[152] Following compulsory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and do several weeks of reserve duty every year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty. Israeli Arabs (except the Druze) and those engaged in full-time religious studies are exempt from military service, although the exemption of yeshiva students has been a source of contention in Israeli society for many years.[153][154] An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds is Sherut Leumi, or national service, which involves a program of service in hospitals, schools and other social welfare frameworks.[155] As a result of its conscription program, the IDF maintains approximately 168,000 active troops and an additional 408,000 reservists.[156]

　　 d为i

　　The nation's military relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems designed and manufactured in Israel as well as some foreign imports. The United States is a particularly notable foreign contributor; they are expected to provide the country with $30 billion in military aid between 2008 and 2017.[157] The Israeli- and U.S.-designed Arrow missile is one of the world's only operational anti-ballistic missile systems.[158] Since the Yom Kippur War, Israel has developed a network of reconnaissance satellites.[159] The success of the Ofeq program has made Israel one of seven countries capable of launching such satellites.[160] The country has also developed its own main battle tank, the Merkava. Since its establishment, Israel has spent a significant portion of its gross domestic product on defense. In 1984, for example, the country spent 24%[161] of its GDP on defense. Today, that figure has dropped to 7.3%.[2]f春

　　e天

　　Israel has not signed the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and maintains a policy of deliberate ambiguity toward its nuclear capabilities, though it is widely regarded as possessing nuclear weapons.[162] After the Gulf War in 1991, when Israel was attacked by Iraqi Scud missiles, a law was passed requiring all apartments and homes in Israel to have a mamad, a reinforced security room impermeable to chemical and biological substances.[163]

　　北美枫

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　　Economyi 北美文学网们

　　Main article: Economy of Israel来北美枫

　　See also: Silicon Wadi and Tourism in Israel 上花在

　　何

　　A main business district in Ramat Gan outside Tel Aviv, where the diamond stock exchange is locatedIsrael is considered one of the most advanced countries in Southwest Asia in economic and industrial development. The country has been ranked highest in the region on the World Bank's Ease of Doing Business Index[164] as well as in the World Economic Forum's Global Competitiveness Report.[15] It has the second-largest number of startup companies in the world (after the United States) and the largest number of NASDAQ-listed companies outside North America.[165] In 2007, Israel had the 44th-highest gross domestic product and 22nd-highest gross domestic product per capita (at purchasing power parity) at US$232.7 billion and US$33,299, respectively.[4] In 2007, Israel was invited to join the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development,[166] which promotes cooperation between countries that adhere to democratic principles and operate free market economies.[167]大

　　u

　　Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of the agricultural and industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Other major imports to Israel, totaling US$47.8 billion in 2006, include fossil fuels, raw materials, and military equipment.[2] Leading exports include fruits, vegetables, pharmaceuticals, software, chemicals, military technology, and diamonds; in 2006, Israeli exports reached US$42.86 billion.[2] Israel is a global leader in water conservation and geothermal energy,[168] and its development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences have evoked comparisons with Silicon Valley.[169][170] Intel[171] and Microsoft[172] built their first overseas research and development centers in Israel, and other high-tech multi-national corporations, such as IBM, Cisco Systems, and Motorola, have opened facilities in the country. In July 2007, U.S. billionaire Warren Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway bought an Israeli company Iscar, its first non-U.S. acquisition, for $4 billion.[173] Since the 1970s, Israel has received economic aid from the United States, whose loans account for the bulk of Israel's external debt,[2] although that aid is expected to end in 2008.[157]x

　　一是

　　Tourism, especially religious tourism, is another important industry in Israel, with the country's temperate climate, beaches, archaeological and historical sites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. Israel's security problems have taken their toll on the industry, but the number of incoming tourists is on the rebound.[174] v

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　　Science and educationC了

　　Main article: Education in IsraelC

　　See also: Science and technology in Israel and List of universities and colleges in Israel hiy

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　　The particle accelerator at the Weizmann Institute of Science, RehovotIsrael has the highest school life expectancy in Southwest Asia, and is tied with Japan for second-highest school life expectancy on the Asian continent (after South Korea).[175] Israel similarly has the highest literacy rate in Southwest Asia, according to the United Nations.[176] The State Education Law, passed in 1953, established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils in Israel. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.[177]

　　

　　Education is compulsory in Israel for children between the ages of three and eighteen.[178][179] Schooling is divided into three tiers – primary school (grades 1–6), middle school (grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12) – culminating with Bagrut matriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, Bible, Hebrew language, Hebrew and general literature, English, history, and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.[180] In Arab, Christian and Druze schools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam in Islam, Christianity or Druze heritage.[181] In 2003, over half of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.[182]天

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　　Israel's eight public universities are subsidized by the state.[180][183] The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel's oldest university, houses the Jewish National and University Library, the world's largest repository of books on Jewish subjects.[184] In 2006, the Hebrew University was ranked 60th[185] and 119th[186] in two surveys of the world's top universities. Other major universities in the country include the Technion, the Weizmann Institute of Science, Tel Aviv University, Bar-Ilan University, the University of Haifa, and Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. Israel ranks third in the world in the number of citizens who hold university degrees (20 percent of the population).[187][188] During the 1990s, an influx of a million immigrants from the former Soviet Union (forty percent of whom were university graduates) helped boost Israel's high-tech sector.[187] Israel has produced four Nobel Prize-winning scientists[189] and publishes among the most scientific papers per capita of any country in the world.[190][191] In 2003, Ilan Ramon became Israel's first astronaut, serving as payload specialist of STS-107, the fatal mission of the Space Shuttle Columbia.r 一

　　风x

　　w7上

　　Demographicse

　　Main article: Demographics of IsraelD

　　See also: Israeli settlement, Languages of Israel, and Arab citizens of Israel

　　Israel's population, as of 2008, is 7.28 million.[3] Of those, over 260,000 Israeli citizens lived in the West Bank settlements[192][193][194] such as Ma'ale Adumim and Ariel, and communities that predated the establishment of the State but were re-established after the Six-Day War, in cities such as Hebron and Gush Etzion. 18,000 Israelis live in the Golan Heights.[195] In 2006, there were 250,000 Jews living in East Jerusalem.[196] The total number of Israeli settlers is over 500,000 (6.5 % of the Israeli population). Approximately 7,800 Israelis lived in settlements in the Gaza Strip until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005 disengagement plan.[197] d来

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　　Israel has two official languages, being Hebrew and Arabic.[2] Hebrew is the primary language of the state and spoken by the majority of the population. Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority and Jews who immigrated to Israel from Arab lands. Most Israelis can communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programs are in English and many schools begin to teach English in the early grades. As a country of immigrants, dozens of languages can be heard on the streets of Israel. A large influx of people from the former Soviet Union and Ethiopia have made Russian and Amharic widely spoken in Israel. Between 1990 and 1994, the immigration of Jews from the former Soviet Union increased Israel's population by twelve percent.[198] Over the last decade, immigration flows have also included significant numbers of workers from countries such as Romania, Thailand, and a number of countries in Africa and South America; gauging precise numbers is difficult because of the presence of "undocumented" immigrants, but estimates run in the region of 200,000.[199] Retention of Israel's population since 1948 when compared to population retention of other mass immigration countries is about on par, or Israel has better retention of its population.[200] Emigration from Israel (yerida) to other countries, primarily the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest[201] but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.[202] [203]i

　　春

　　 vx

　　Religion花z春

　　Main article: Religion in Israel风

　　

　　The Western Wall and the Dome of the Rock, JerusalemIsrael was established as a homeland for the Jewish people and is often referred to as the Jewish state. The country's Law of Return grants all Jews and those of Jewish lineage the right to Israeli citizenship.[204] Just over three quarters, or 75.5%, of the population are Jews from a diversity of Jewish backgrounds. Approximately 68% of Israeli Jews are Israeli-born, 22% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 10% are immigrants from Asia and Africa (including the Arab World).[205] The religious affiliation of Israeli Jews varies widely: 55% say they are "traditional," while 20% consider themselves "secular Jews," 17% define themselves as "Orthodox Jews"; the final 8% define themselves as "Haredi Jews."[206]x

　　C

　　 y

　　Bahá'í World Centre in HaifaMaking up 16.2% of the population, Muslims constitute Israel's largest religious minority. Israeli Arabs, who comprise 19.8% of the population, contribute significantly to that figure as over four fifths (82.6%) of them are Muslim. Of the remaining Israeli Arabs, 8.8% are Christian and 8.4% are Druze.[207] Members of many other religious groups, including Buddhists and Hindus, maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.[208]y时

　　了B说

　　Christians make up 2.1% of the total population of Israel and consist of both Arab Christians and Messianic Jews.[209]时风

　　r

　　The city of Jerusalem enjoys a special place in the hearts of Jews, Muslims, and Christians as the home of sites that are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as the Western Wall, the Temple Mount, the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Other landmarks of religious importance are located in the West Bank, among them the birthplace of Jesus and Rachel's Tomb in Bethlehem, and the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron. The administrative center of the Bahá'í Faith and the Shrine of the Báb are located at the Bahá'í World Centre in Haifa and the leader of the faith is buried in Acre. Apart from maintenance staff, there is no Bahá'í community in Israel, although it is a destination for pilgrimages.[210][211] 8et

　　e

　　w中

　　Culturef

　　Main article: Culture of Israel北美枫

　　Further information: Israeli literature and Music of Israel

　　See also: Archaeology of Israel, Jewish cuisine, Revival of the Hebrew language, Secular Jewish culture, and Architecture of Israel 要

　　

　　Hebrew Book Week 2005 in JerusalemIsrael's diverse culture stems from the diversity of the population: Jews from around the world have brought their cultural and religious traditions with them, creating a melting pot of Jewish customs and beliefs.[212] Israel is the only country in the world where life revolves around the Hebrew calendar. Work and school holidays are determined by the Jewish holidays, and the official day of rest is Saturday, the Jewish Sabbath.[213] Israel's substantial Arab minority has also left its imprint on Israeli culture in such spheres as architecture,[214] music,[215] and cuisine.[216]7

　　不p

　　Israeli literature is primarily poetry and prose written in Hebrew, as part of the renaissance of Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages, such as Arabic and English. By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in the Jewish National and University Library at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.[217] In 2006, 85 percent of the 8,000 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew.[218] The Hebrew Book Week (He: שבוע הספר) is held each June and features book fairs, public readings, and appearances by Israeli authors around the country. During the week, Israel's top literary award, the Sapir Prize, is presented. In 1966, Shmuel Yosef Agnon shared the Nobel Prize in Literature with German Jewish author Nelly Sachs.[219]

　　Bb

　　花e

　　Batsheva Dance Company in Tel AvivIsraeli music contains musical influences from all over the world; Yemenite music, Hasidic melodies, Arabic music, Greek music, jazz, and pop rock are all part of the music scene.[220][221] The nation's canonical folk songs, known as "Songs of the Land of Israel," deal with the experiences of the pioneers in building the Jewish homeland.[222] Among Israel's world-renowned[223] orchestras is the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, which has been in operation for over seventy years and today performs more than two hundred concerts each year.[224] Israel has also produced many musicians of note, some achieving international stardom. Itzhak Perlman, Pinchas Zukerman are among the internationally-acclaimed musicians born in Israel. Israel has participated in the Eurovision Song Contest nearly every year since 1973, winning the competition three times and hosting it twice.[225] Eilat has hosted its own international music festival, the Red Sea Jazz Festival, every summer since 1987.[226] Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of the Yiddish theater in Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918, Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv is Israel's oldest repertory theater company and national theater.[227]的北美枫

　　花4 国

　　The Israel Museum in Jerusalem is one of Israel's most important cultural institutions[228] and houses the Dead Sea scrolls,[229] along with an extensive collection of Judaica and European art.[228] Israel's national Holocaust museum, Yad Vashem, houses the world's largest archive of Holocaust-related information.[230] Beth Hatefutsoth (the Diaspora Museum), on the campus of Tel Aviv University, is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world.[231] Apart from the major museums in large cities, there are high-quality artspaces in many towns and kibbutzim. Mishkan Le'Omanut on Kibbutz Ein Harod Meuhad is the largest art museum in the north of the country.[232]9c

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　　是

　　Sports 一

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　　Ramat Gan Stadium, Israel's largest stadiumMain article: Sports in Israel了

　　Sports and physical fitness have not always been paramount in Jewish culture. Athletic prowess, which was prized by the ancient Greeks, was looked down upon as an unwelcome intrusion of Hellenistic values. Maimonides, however, who was both a rabbi and a physician, emphasized the importance of physical activity and keeping the body in shape. This approach received a boost in the 19th century from the physical culture campaign of Max Nordau, and in the early 20th century when the Chief Rabbi of Palestine, Abraham Isaac Kook, declared that "the body serves the soul, and only a healthy body can ensure a healthy soul".[233]f

　　f

　　The Maccabiah Games, an Olympic-style event for Jewish athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since then. The most popular spectator sports in Israel today are association football and basketball.[234] In 1964 Israel hosted and won the Asian Nations Cup before joining UEFA in 1994. Ligat ha'Al is the country's premier soccer league, and Ligat Winner is the premier basketball league.[235] Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. has won the European championship in basketball five times.[236] Beersheba has become a national chess center and home to many chess champions from the former Soviet Union. The city hosted the World Team Chess Championship in 2005, and chess is taught in the city's kindergartens.[237]u

　　j 国

　　Two years later, in 2007, an Israeli tied for second place in the World Chess Championship.[238] To date, Israel has won six Olympic medals since its first win in 1992, including a gold medal in windsurfing at the 2004 Summer Olympics.[239] 为来u

　　

　　

　　Referencesy 一

　　^ The Jerusalem Law states that "Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel" and the city serves as the seat of the government, home to the President's residence, government offices, supreme court, and parliament. The United Nations and most countries do not accept the Jerusalem Law (see Kellerman 1993, p. 140) and maintain their embassies in other cities such as Tel Aviv, Ramat Gan, and Herzliya (see the CIA Factbook and Map of Israel) The Palestinian Authority sees East Jerusalem as the capital of a future Palestinian state and the city's final status awaits future negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority (see "Negotiating Jerusalem", University of Maryland). See Positions on Jerusalem for more information.

　　^ a b c d e f g h i j k Israel. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (2007-06-19). Retrieved on 2007-07-20. 北美枫

　　^ a b c Main Indicators. Central Bureau of Statistics (2008-05-07). Retrieved on 2007-09-18. u

　　^ a b International Monetary Fund, October 2007. d山

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　　^ Israel. Country Report. Freedom House (2007). Retrieved on 2007-07-15. 0

　　^ The Palestine Mandate. The Avalon Project. Yale University (1922-07-24). Retrieved on 2007-09-06. A

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　　^ a b Global Competitiveness Report 2006-2007. World Economic Forum (2007-02-14). Retrieved on 2007-07-15. 天国

　　^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "And he said, Thy name shall be called no more Jacob, but Israel: for as a prince hast thou power with God and with men, and hast prevailed." (Genesis, 32:28)

　　^ Hamilton 1995, p. 334 国 A

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　　^ "On the Move", TIME Magazine, 1948-05-31. Retrieved on 2007-08-06.

　　^ Walking the Bible Timeline. Walking the Bible. Public Broadcast Television. Retrieved on 2007-09-29. B春日人

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　　^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "But if ye turn unto me, and keep my commandments, and do them; though there were of you cast out unto the uttermost part of the heaven, yet will I gather them from thence, and will bring them unto the place that I have chosen to set my name there." (Nehemiah, 1:9) 一

　　^ Friedland & Hecht 2000, p. 8. "For a thousand years Jerusalem was the seat of Jewish sovereignty, the household site of kings, the location of its legislative councils and courts."

　　^ "Ancient Palestine". Encarta. (2007). Microsoft, Retrieved on 2007-09-30. 一

　　^ Palestine: History. The Online Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. The University of South Dakota (2007-02-22). Retrieved on 2007-07-05.

　　^ Morçöl 2006, p. 304 国

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　　^ "Palestine: The Crusades". Encyclopedia Britannica. (2007). Retrieved on 2007-09-19.

　　^ Rosenzweig, p. 1. "Zionism, the urge of the Jewish people to return to Palestine, is almost as ancient as the Jewish diaspora itself. Some Talmudic statements... Almost a millennium later, the poet and philosopher Yehuda Halevi... In the 19th century..."

　　^ From the King James Version of the Bible: "For out of Zion shall go forth the law, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem." (Isaiah, 2:3) Cu

　　^ Gilbert 2005, p. 2. "Jews sought a new homeland here after their expulsions from Spain (1492)..." 的

　　^ Ausubel 1964, pp. 142–4

　　^ a b c d Immigration. Jewish Virtual Library. The American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise. Retrieved on 2007-07-12. The source provides information on the First, Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Aliyot in their respective articles. The White Paper leading to Aliyah Bet is discussed here. 一

　　^ Kornberg 1993 "How did Theodor Herzl, an assimilated German nationalist in the 1880s, suddenly in the 1890s become the founder of Zionism?" 北美枫

　　^ Herzl 1946, p. 11 大

　　^ Chapter One: The Heralders of Zionism. Jewish Agency for Israel. Retrieved on 2007-07-12. fc

　　^ Stein 2003, p. 88. "As with the First Aliyah, most Second Aliyah migrants were non-Zionist orthodox Jews..." ci

　　^ Romano 2003, p. 30 春个

　　^ Balfour Declaration 1917. The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. Yale University (1917-11-02). Retrieved on 2007-07-12. x 日春

　　^ Scharfstein 1996, p. 269. "During the First and Second Aliyot, there were many Arab attacks against Jewish settlements... In 1920, Hashomer was disbanded and Haganah ("The Defense") was established." 时C

　　^ League of Nations: The Mandate for Palestine, July 24, 1922. Modern History Sourcebook. Fordham University (1922-07-24). Retrieved on 2007-08-27.

　　^ J. V. W. Shaw , "A Survey of Palestine, Vol 1: Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the Information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry", Reprinted 1991 by The Institute for Palestine Studies, Washington, D.C., p.148 c

　　^ Liebreich 2005, p. 34

　　^ The Population of Palestine Prior to 1948. MidEastWeb. Retrieved on 2007-07-12. 的

　　^ Population Statistics. Israeli - Palestinian ProCon.org. Retrieved on 2007-07-12. 0

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　　^ (1949-04-20). "Background Paper No. 47 (ST/DPI/SER.A/47)". United Nations. Retrieved on 2007-07-31. C

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　　^ History: Foreign Domination. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2006-10-01). Retrieved on 2007-07-06. Ci

　　^ Bregman 2002, p. 40–1 不b

　　^ a b Part 3: Partition, War and Independence. The Mideast: A Century of Conflict. National Public Radio (2002-10-02). Retrieved on 2007-07-13. 日u

　　^ (1949-05-11). "Two Hundred and Seventh Plenary Meeting". The United Nations. Retrieved on 2007-07-13. sr 一

　　^ (1950-10-23). "General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, Covering the Period from 11 December 1949 to 23 October 1950". The United Nations Conciliation Commission. Retrieved on 2007-07-13. (U.N. General Assembly Official Records, Fifth Session, Supplement No. 18, Document A/1367/Rev. 1) 北美枫 85

　　^ Van Evera, Stephen. Nature of the Flashpoint (pdf). Center for International Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved on 2007-09-11. d来

　　^ Reveron & Murer 2006 来

　　^ Lustick 1988, pp. 37–9 7

　　^ Israel (Labor Zionism). Country Studies. Library of Congress. 9

　　^ Population, by Religion and Population Group. Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (2006). Retrieved on 2007-08-07. 春D

　　^ Shindler 2002, pp. 49–50 为t

　　^ Gilbert 2005, p. 58 g

　　^ The Suez Crisis. University of San Diego (2005-12-05). Retrieved on 2007-07-15. t

　　^ Adolf Eichmann. Jewish Virtual Library. fx

　　^ Cole 2003, p. 27. "...the Eichmann trial, which did so much to raise public awareness of the Holocaust..." DBA

　　^ Justice Ministry Reply to Amnesty International Report. Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1995-07-05). Retrieved on 2007-08-10. 时我了

　　^ Encarta - Six-Day War 春i

　　^ Smith 2006, p. 126. "Nasser, the Egyptian president, decided to mass troops in the Sinai...casus belli by Israel." 一

　　^ NYTimes - The Interregnum

　　^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs - The Palestinian National Covenant- July 1968 e 为风

　　^ Ma'alot, Kiryat Shmona, and Other Terrorist Targets in the 1970s sv

　　^ Andrews, Edmund L. and John Kifner. "George Habash, Palestinian Terrorism Tactician, Dies at 82." The New York Times. 27 January 2008. 12 May 2008. 大

　　^ Crowdy 2006, p. 333 dr

　　^ 1973: Arab states attack Israeli forces. On This Day. The BBC. Retrieved on 2007-07-15. 来

　　^ Bregman 2002, pp. 169–70 "In hindsight we can say that 1977 was a turning point..." u

　　^ Bregman 2002, pp. 171–4 以 g

　　^ Bregman 2002, pp. 186–7 C

　　^ Bregman 2002, p. 199 风w一

　　^ "Intifada". Encarta. (2007). Microsoft, Retrieved on 2007-09-16. wa

　　^ Stone & Zenner 1994, p. 246. "Toward the end of 1991,... were the result of internal Palestinian terror."

　　^ Haberman, Clyde. "After 4 Years, Intifada Still Smolders", The New York Times, 1991-12-09. Retrieved on 2008-03-28. 7

　　^ Mowlana, Gerbner & Schiller 1992, p. 111 时0

　　^ Bregman 2002, p. 236 v

　　^ From the End of the Cold War to 2001. Boston College. Retrieved on 2007-07-16.

　　^ Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements. U.S. Department of State (1993-09-13). Retrieved on 2007-07-16. 9

　　^ Israel-Palestine Liberation Organization letters of recognition 为国 v

　　^ Harkavy & Neuman 2001, p. 270. "Even though Jordan in 1994 became the second country, after Egypt to sign a peace treaty with Israel..." e大

　　^ Settlements information, Foundation for Middle East Peace. Sources of Population Growth: Total Israeli Population and Settler Population, 1991 - 2003. Retrieved on 2007-12-12. 春

　　^ Bregman 2002, p. 257 c

　　^ The Wye River Memorandum. U.S. Department of State (1998-10-23). Retrieved on 2007-07-16. 一

　　^ Gelvin 2005, p. 240 wk

　　^ "West Bank barrier route disputed, Israeli missile kills 2", The Associated Press (via USA Today), 2004-07-29. Retrieved on 2007-07-16. 我B

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