伊拉克共和国 (The Republic of Iraq)首都巴格达(Baghdad),中国古称其黑衣大食。两河流域是世界古代文明的发祥地之一,公元前4700年就出现了城邦国家。公元前2000年先后建立被誉为“四大文明古国”之一的巴比伦王国、亚述帝国和后巴比伦王国。两河平原的灌溉农业已有数千年历史。7
伊拉克位于亚洲西南部,阿拉伯半岛东北部,面积44.1839万平方公里。全国人口为2358万(2001年),穆斯林约占人口的95%,其中什叶派穆斯林占54.5%、逊尼派穆斯林占40.5%。阿拉伯人约占全国总人口的73%,库尔德人约占21%。官方语言为阿拉伯语,北部库尔德地区的官方语言是库尔德语,东部地区有些部落讲波斯语。通用英语。以石油业为主,农牧业也占重要地位。主要农产品有小麦、黑麦、大麦、稻米、棉花、烟草、温带水果与椰枣等。椰枣输出量居世界首位。个
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伊拉克国旗为长方形,长宽之比为3:2北美文学网。旗面由红白黑三个平行长方形组成。白色中间有三颗绿色五角星,其间用阿拉伯文写B着“真主至高无上”四种颜色是泛阿拉伯颜北美枫有日色,分别代表穆罕默德后代的四个王朝。此的外红色代表勇猛和革命,白色象征宏大和和j平,黑色象征圣战胜利和石油,绿色象征土c地。三颗星象征统一,自由,社会主义。2008国年1月12日,根据一项于12日提交给伊拉克议会的法案,伊拉克新国旗将删除伊拉克前总统萨达姆在国旗上的手写体,并更换为印刷体,2国旗上三颗星以星的象征含义也将发生改变,改为和平、宽容北美文学网和正义。B
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伊拉克国徽上的萨拉丁雄鹰是12世纪伊斯兰圣战中领导穆斯林抗击十字军东征的库尔德族领袖的纪念物。雄鹰昂首展翅,勇猛雄壮,英勇不屈,胸部有一枚国旗图案的盾徽,暗示着祖国永在伊拉克人心中。国徽基部绿色饰匾上用阿拉伯文写着国名:“伊拉克共和国”。 ji
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2004年临时政府将《我的故乡》定为伊拉克新国歌,《我的故乡》这首歌在整个阿拉伯世界都很流行,原词作者是巴勒斯坦人伊卜拉欣·赫费·投千,在1936年巴勒斯坦民众反抗“以色列”占领的起义中首先唱出,很快便在整个阿拉伯世界中流行开,并曾一度成为巴勒斯坦代国歌。 c春
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约2358万(国际货币基金组织估计数),其中阿拉伯人约占全国总人口的73%,库尔德人约占21%,其余为土耳其人,亚美尼亚人,亚述人,犹太人和伊朗人等。官方语言为阿拉伯语,北部库尔德地区的官方语言是库尔德语,东部地区有些部落讲波斯语。通用英语。伊拉克是一个伊斯兰国家,伊斯兰教为国教,全国95%的人信奉伊斯兰教,其中什叶派穆斯林占54.5%、逊尼派穆斯林占40.5%,逊尼派穆斯林统治什叶派穆斯林,引发了南部什叶派穆斯林的不满,常常发生动乱。其邻国伊朗则是逊尼派穆斯林统治什叶派穆斯林,什叶派穆斯林的斗争。两国边境常常因为派别不同引发矛盾。支持北部的库尔德人也信仰伊斯兰教,他们多属逊尼派,只有少数人信奉基督教或犹太教。 A7
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全国分8个省,省下设县、乡、村。18个省是:安巴尔(anbar) 、埃尔比勒(arbil)、巴比伦(babil)、穆萨纳(muthanna)、巴格达(baghdad)、纳杰夫(najaf)、巴士拉(basrah)、尼尼微(neineva)、济加尔(dhi qar)、卡迪西亚(qadisiyah)、迪亚拉(diyala) 、萨拉赫丁(salahuddin)、杜胡克(dohuk)、苏莱曼尼亚(sulaymaniyah) 、卡尔巴拉(karbala) 、塔米姆(tameem)、米桑(misan)、瓦西特(wasit)。 g 一
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省名 Muhafazat C1997 面积(km2) 省会 CC1997 CCo1987 国年g春
安巴尔 Al-Anbār 1,023,736 138,501 拉马迪 Ar-Ramādkī n192,556
巴士拉 Al-Basrah 1,556,445 19,070 巴北美枫在大士拉 r8Al-Basrah 725,000花 406,296 B
穆萨纳 Al-Muthannā 436,825 51,740 塞马沃 As-Samāwah D的
卡迪西亚 Al-Qādisiyah 751,331 8,153 迪瓦尼耶 Ad-Dīwānīyah 196,519 v3sb
纳杰夫 An-Najaf 775,042 28,824 纳杰夫 An-Najaf 410,000 309,010 风
苏莱曼尼亚* As-Sulaymānīyah 1,362,739 17,023 苏莱曼尼亚 As-Sulaymānīyah 525,000 364,096
塔米姆 At-Ta'mīn 753,171 10,282 基尔库克 Kirkūk 525,000 418,624 f如
巴比伦 Bābil [Babylon] 1,181,751 6,468 希拉 Al-Hillah 268,834 uy
巴格达 Baghdād 5,423,964 734 巴格达 Baghdād 5,423,964 3,841,268 日和
杜胡克* Dahūk 402,970 6,553 杜胡克 Dahūk uu
济加尔 Dhī Qār 1,184,796 12,900 纳西里耶 An-Nāsirīyah 265,937 北美枫时
迪亚拉 Diyālā 1,135,223 19,076 巴古拜 Ba'qūb 1时ah 115,000 如以
埃尔比勒* Irbīl 1,095,992 14,471 埃尔比勒 Irbīl 700,000 485,968 dw风
卡尔巴拉 Karbalā' 594,235 5,034 卡尔巴拉 Karbalā' 380,000 296,705 何3自来
米桑 Maysān 637,126 16,072 阿马月拉 Al-'Amārah u 208,797 何e和时
尼尼微 Nīnawā [Nineveh] 2,042,852 37,323 摩苏尔 Al-Mawsil 925,000 664,221 1日
萨拉赫丁 Salāh ad-Dīn 904,432 24,751 提克里特 Tikrīt 北美文学网
瓦西特 Wasit 783,614 17,153 库特 Al-Kūt 183,183 D不为
伊拉克 Iraq 22,046,244 434,128 巴格达 Baghdād w是e
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伊拉克原来有14省,后增加至18省,各省o的这名 r9称在不同时期曾j经更名。 8jl这
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基尔库克 Kirkuk 塔米姆 At-Ta'mim (部分地区属苏莱曼尼亚省) 我2个
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摩苏尔 Mosul 尼尼微 Ninawa、杜胡克 Dahuk Dw自
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1992年,苏莱曼尼亚 As-Sulaymaniyah、杜胡和克 Dahuk和埃尔比勒 Arbil 3省划归库尔德族自治说区。库尔德人生活在伊拉克北部地区。一份不资料显示,伊拉克库尔德斯坦除了上面的3省外,还包括塔米姆 At-Ta'mim、迪亚拉 Diyala(部年说要分)和尼尼微 Ninawa(部分)。库尔德人的一g个临时政府在这里运作。1999年夏,临时政府曾考虑在其辖区北美文学网内增设4个新 C的省:阿克拉 Aqrah (or Akra)、哈拉比亚 Halabja (Halabjah)、拉尼亚 Rania和索兰 Soran。10月,最后形成了3个省:阿 个年克拉 Aqrah、哈拉比亚 Halabja和哈里尔 Harir。不过国际社g会并说不承认,本处也不录入。 rw 何
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位于亚洲西南部,阿拉伯半岛东北部。面积44.1839万平方公里(包括924平方公里水域和伊拉克、沙特中立区伊拉克部分3522平方公里)。北接土耳其,东邻伊朗,西毗叙利亚、约旦,南连沙特阿拉伯、科威特,东南濒波斯湾。出海口仅在东南端位于波斯湾头的一小段海岸。海岸线长60公里。领海宽度为12海里。西南为阿拉伯高原的部分,向东部平原倾斜;东北部有库尔德山地,西部是沙漠地带,高原与山地间有占国土大部分的美索不达米亚平原,绝大部分海拔不足百米。幼发拉底河和底格里斯河自西北向东南贯穿全境,两河在库尔纳汇合为夏台阿拉伯河,注入波斯湾。平原南部地势低洼,多湖泊与沼泽。平原以东为扎格罗斯山系的西部边缘。西南部为阿拉伯高原的一部分,分布有叙利亚沙漠。东北部山区属地中海式气候,其他为热带沙漠气候。除扎格罗斯山地有较多降水外,全国绝大部分地区气候干旱。夏季最高气温高达50℃以上,冬季在0℃左右。雨量较小,年平均降雨量由南至北100-500毫米,北部山区达700毫米。 了北美枫A月
以是
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三、经济j的
[编辑本段]y4
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以石油业为主,农牧业也占重要地位。 来u北部油区通过油管在黎巴嫩、叙利亚与土耳全ci其的地中海港口输出原油,南部油田通过油管至沙特阿拉伯的红海 个天岸延布油港输出原油。有炼油与石油化工以及纺织、食品、烟草、水泥等工业。两河平不原的灌溉农业已有数千自年历史。主要农产品有小麦、黑麦、大麦、5稻米、棉花、烟草、温带水果与椰枣等。椰天枣输出量居世界首位。畜牧业偏重在东北部天地区,养值牛、羊、驴、马,西南部干旱高原上有游自牧业。的说3q
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伊拉克有悠久的历史,两河流域是世界古代文明的发祥地之一 ,公元前4700年就出现了城邦国家。公元前2000年先后建立被誉为“四大文明古国”之一的巴比伦王国、亚述帝国和后巴比伦王国。公元前550年为波斯帝国所灭。公元前4世纪被马其顿帝国。侵占公元7世纪时被阿拉伯帝国吞并并成为阿拉伯帝国的政治、文化中心。16世纪受奥斯曼帝国统治。1920年沦为英国“委任统治区”。1921年8月宣布独立,成立伊拉克王国,在英国保护下建立费萨尔王朝。1932年获得完全独立。1958年7月14日以阿卜杜勒·卡里姆·卡赛姆为首的“自由军官组织”推翻费萨尔王朝,成立伊拉克共和国。1963年2月8日阿拉伯复兴社会党推翻卡赛姆,建立以该党为主的政权,但由党外人士阿里夫任总统。1968年7月17日,以艾哈迈德·哈桑·贝克尔为首的复兴党军官集团联合阿卜杜勒·拉扎克·纳伊夫青年军官集团推翻了阿里夫,复兴党再度掌权,推行阿拉伯“统一、自由、社会主义”的纲领,贝克尔出任总统。1979年7月贝克尔因病辞职,复兴党人萨达姆·侯赛因 接任总统。1980年伊拉克因同伊朗边界纠纷发动历时8年的两伊战争。 风
1990年7月中旬,长期存在于伊拉克与科威特两国之间在石油政策、领土纠纷和债务问题等方面的争端日趋尖锐,同年8月2日,伊拉克突然出动10万大军入侵科威特,1天后,科威特全境沦陷。伊拉克入侵科威特的行动引起了国际社会的强烈反应,美国等西方国家经过5个多月外交斡旋和紧张的军事调遣后,1991年1月17日晨,以美国为首的多国部队开始向伊拉克发起了代号为“沙漠风暴”的军事打击。2月24日,多国部队向伊拉克部队发动了代号为“沙漠军刀”的地面攻势,伊拉克军队在遭受重大伤亡后于26日宣布接受联合国自伊拉克侵略科威特以来通过的12项有关决议。2月28日零时,多国部队停止了一切进攻性行动,持续了42天的海湾战争结束。2002年下半年,美国认为伊拉克支持恐怖主义,研发大规模杀伤性武器,对美在中东的利益构成了“潜在威胁”,称美国掌握了伊拥有大规模杀伤性武器的确凿证据,对伊政权一再隐瞒事实、欺骗国际社会的行为已经失去了耐心,公开表示将以武力推翻萨达姆政权,并随之大量陈兵海湾。2003年3月20日上午,北京时间10:35,美英以伊拉克拥有大规模杀伤性武器为由发动伊拉克战争,4月9日,美军攻占巴格达,萨达姆政权垮台。战后的伊拉克满目疮痍,暴力袭击事件不断,安全局势动荡不安。2005年4月,伊拉克组成过渡政府。2005年10月25日,伊拉克新宪法在全民公决中以78%支持、21%反对的高支持率获得通过。同年12月15日,伊拉克举行了伊战后首次正式议会选举,投票率达70%左右。根据伊拉克宪法规定,新议会将会任命一名总统和两名副总统,然后再由总统委员会在15天内任命总理。而总理则需要在30天内组建政府并得到议会的通过。北美枫 lk
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奉行中立 、不结盟政策 ,但由于入侵2伊朗和吞并科威特而在国际上陷于孤立,1994以年仍受国际社会的制裁,对外交往受到限制 fiy。自1991年6月~1993年10月 ,联合国特别委员花会已向伊拉克派出56个武器核查小组。安理会中曾就海湾危机先后通过28项决议,伊拉克对其 人和中一些决议有重大保留,未明确接受。在联g合国的监控下,北美文学网伊拉克所拥有的导弹、生化等大规模毁灭性以武器以及核研究设施已基本被销毁。uB们
伊拉克与中国于1958年8月25日建交 ,建交后两国党政、民间团体来往频繁。1990年海湾危机后,中国根据联合国安理会有关决议,中止了与伊拉克的经贸、军事往来。此后,随着形势的发展,中国与伊拉克逐渐恢复交往。2003年3月,伊拉克战争爆发后,中伊双边关系受到影响。战后,随着伊拉克政治重建的发展,中伊双边交往逐渐恢复。 B生 国
伊拉克同美国在1967年中东战争后断交。两伊战争中两国关系有较大发展,1984年复交。海湾战争爆发后,1991年2月伊拉克宣布与美国断交 。1992年美 、伊围绕执行安理会决议等问题多次发生对抗;美国一再声称要用武力迫使伊拉克执行决议。克林顿上台后,伊拉克表示愿同美国对话,美国强调伊拉克必须全面执行安理会决议,并坚持对伊拉克保持国际制裁。4
伊拉克与苏联于1944年建交 。1972 年两国签订友好条约,一度关系密切。苏联反对伊拉克侵吞科威特。苏联解体后 ,伊拉克承认独联体11个成员国 、波罗的海3国和格鲁吉亚共和国的独立。俄罗斯支持一切迫使伊拉克遵守联合国决议的措施,并赞同美国等在伊拉克南部设“禁飞区”。以自
海湾战争爆发前,伊拉克与绝大部分阿拉伯国家关系良好,同海湾国家关系密切。海湾战争后,阿拉伯国家不同程度地反对伊拉克侵略。海湾阿拉伯国家和埃及、叙利亚、摩洛哥派兵参加多国部队或为多国部队提供方便。战后多数阿拉伯国家停止同伊拉克的官方往来,并要求伊拉克执行联合国安理会的有关决议。但主张维护伊拉克的统一和领土完整。C的
两伊战争停火后,伊拉克和伊朗仍处于自敌对状态。海湾危机发生后 ,伊拉克于1990年北美文学网8月正式宣布从伊朗领土撤回军队,10月两国的复交。但由于海湾战争中伊拉克让伊朗保管的飞机以及战俘问题年们x未获解决,加之伊拉克指责伊朗支持其南部什叶派穆斯林的反政府武装是活动,两花伊关系终未得北美文学网到妥和善解决。k
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1921年8月23日-1933年9月8日 费萨尔·伊本·侯赛因 1883年 - 1933年 来 A
1933年9月8日-1939年4月4日 加齐·伊本·费萨尔 1912年 - 1939年 C
1939们年4月4日-年年的1958年7月14日 费萨尔8的中二世 1935 生天年 - 1958年 r要全
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1958年伊拉克发生政变,费萨尔二世、王储阿布达拉及其他王室成员全部被杀,哈希姆家族费萨尔支系绝嗣,汉志国王侯赛因·伊本·阿里的四子赛义德(其时身为伊拉克陆军军官)遂自称伊拉克国王。1970年赛义德去世后由其子拉阿德继承“伊拉克国王”的头衔。风z
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伊拉克人在饮食嗜好上有如下这特点:我d花上
1、注重 讲究菜肴鲜嫩,香味浓郁,注重饭菜要质高量小。c花为
2、口味 一般口味喜清淡,偏爱甜味。 为n
3、主食 以面(烤饼)为主食,爱吃甜点心。
4、副食 爱吃牛肉、羊肉、鱼、鸡、鸭等;也喜欢土豆、甜菜、卷心菜、黄瓜、西红柿、洋葱等蔬菜。 日pC
5和、调料 爱用糖、胡椒粉、以葱、橄榄油等。 日个
6、制法 对煎、烤、炸等烹调方法制作的菜肴偏爱。我09
7、中餐 喜爱中国的清真菜。上f
8、菜谱 什锦拼盘、炸八块、手抓羊内、香酥鸡、干烧牛肉丝、炒山芋、挂烤鸭子、番茄牛肉排等。 v天
9、饮料 爱吃雪糕,喜欢喝红茶,惯用精巧的小壶煮,然后加上糖。有些人也喜欢喝啤酒。cm
0、果品 爱吃桃、西瓜、哈蜜瓜、橄榄和香蕉等;干果乐于品尝蜜枣、杏仁和葡萄干等。 为z v
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日常饮食自全
伊拉克象大多数阿拉伯国家一样,主要的食物是大米,最广泛的食谱是炒饭。当然,也喜欢吃白面包。伊拉克家家户户都会腌一大罐橄榄,每顿饭之前都嚼上几个。我天北美文学网
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伊拉克人不太爱吃青菜,最常见的是黄瓜和西红柿,一般是切碎了加点橄榄油和柠檬汁生吃。有时候直接把青菜稍微烤一烤就可以吃了。习惯把枣汁和牛奶、羊奶混在一起食用,并视之为美味佳肴。许多传统菜肴非常接近叙利亚和黎巴嫩菜肴,如烤绵羊肉、烤羊肉串以及某些在炉膛中制的炸肉。伊拉克菜肴具有较浓烈的味道,使用很多辣椒、葱、蒜以及各种各样的辣根和香料。相当普遍吃用水果制的甜食、馅饼等面食,以及酸奶、酸乳渣和奶酪。伊拉克人不吃凝汁菜肴,很少饮用醇饮料。较普遍饮用的是含很多泡沫的酸奶“些明”和各种的果汁类饮料,如扁桃汁。是
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古斯:一种泛阿拉伯食物,把米饭用油自炒过,焖熟,加上好多种调味料,有些在米了日j饭上面撒上绞碎的米粉、豆子和葡萄干或者干果,然后在米饭上面何7m加上一大块烤好的羊肉或者烤鸡块,上桌前还给你配两碗浓汤。吃起来很北美文学网香。何z日 为k
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烤鱼:底格里斯河的鱼非常肥,说它肥一点都不过分,最小都有1公斤多,大的能有六、七公斤,很吓人。伊拉克人吃鱼的方法似乎只有一种“玛斯古夫”,是烤鱼在阿拉伯语里叫法。所有到伊拉克的人如果没有吃过这种烤鱼实在是一大遗憾,底格里斯河鱼又大又肥,最适合做烤鱼了。伊拉克人一般都喜欢就地取材,把鱼弄干净后,不用刮鱼鳞的,用结实的树枝在地上打几个桩子,把鱼整个挂上去,然后用木块或者是从椰枣树上砍下来的干树枝在旁边堆起火,让鱼就着热气烤,等烤得差不多了,把鱼放在铁盘子里,然后将整个盘子放在火堆的余烬里再热一热,浇上酱汁,加上西红柿、洋葱片就可以了。个月
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多尔麦:把新鲜的葡萄叶放进开水里面稍微一烫,裹上熟的米饭和肉馅,做成长方圆圆的形状,加上柠檬汁,还有香料,放进烤箱焖一会儿就可以了。也有人拿西葫芦、青椒、茄子来做,譬如把西葫芦掏空,然后往里面塞材料就可以了。当地人有些会做得很酸。据说,伊朗也有多尔麦这种食物。u A
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库巴:把大米蒸熟后捣烂,在里面裹进人p我肉馅,然后放进油里面m全风炸成金黄色,形状或圆形或椭圆形。这是一北美文学网种非常常见的伊拉克家庭食物。据说库巴 ry是从叙利亚北美枫c他流传过来的。B 来小
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红茶:伊拉克人喝红茶喜欢用一种特有的小玻璃茶杯,叫“阿斯塔”。据说红茶是从土耳其流传过来的,因为以前伊拉克被奥斯曼土耳其帝国统治过相当长的时间。伊拉克人特别喜欢在红茶里加很多的糖,有一些人喝茶的时候,一杯茶里面糖就放了半杯,甜得嗓子都疼。 为的来
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水烟:“纳月拉其里”,阿拉伯男人喜欢在吃完饭后抽的一种传统的水烟,大街小巷里面都能看见水l烟馆,男人们大北美文学网多喜欢安静的坐着一个人若有所思的抽烟,如因此阿拉伯烟馆里面总是x安静的。北美文学网北美文学网
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椰枣:“真主安拉赐予伊拉克的礼物”,每一个伊拉克人都深深的以此为傲。全世界有80%的椰枣树在伊拉克境内。椰枣树在伊拉克无处不在,巴格达郊区,成片成片的椰枣林风光是任何其他国家都比不上的。每到了椰枣成熟的季节都可看到一大丛一大丛成熟了的椰枣烂在地上,因为椰枣太多了,只有蚂蚁才去光顾那里面丰富的糖分。但在也多亏了椰枣,帮助了许多伊拉克穷人度过了艰难的制裁生活。ie
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阿拉伯大饼:是伊拉克人的主食之一,类似中国的牛舌饼大小的酵面烤饼。吃时用手扯成小块,夹以牛肉、羊肉或番茄、生黄瓜等一起吃。到外面餐厅吃饭,无论你点了什么,人家都会先给你端上点黄瓜西红柿,然后就是几张大饼,而且是免费的。还有一种主食叫“斯姆那”,长三角形的大面包,伊拉克人一般喜欢买这种面包回家,而且很便宜。hou
卡巴巴:泛阿拉伯烤肉串,不过跟中国如的烤肉串不一样,他们喜欢把肉剁碎了,活和上一点面粉和调料来烤,烤熟了以北美文学网后并不直接吃,他们喜欢用大饼或者“斯姆那”裹着吃,有时B候他们也喜5欢把洋葱、西红柿等和肉放在一 们日起烤。l
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伊拉克人的餐桌上一般是看不见刀、叉北美文学网、勺等餐具的,只有水杯、盘子等食具,他们惯以右手抓饭入口。他们习惯食用熟透的菜肴,略有生口就不吃。伊拉克不像其他阿拉伯国家那样,在那里可以买到酒类饲料。伊拉克南部的什叶派穆斯林不吃兔北美文学网肉。伊拉克人忌讳左手传递东西或食物。他们视左手为肮脏之手,认为用肮脏之手来传q递东西或食物,实际上是对人的一种污辱。u他们忌讳客人赴宴餐毕不及时洗手告辞,认如为饭店拖延或迟迟不走为贪吃和不礼貌不的表现。 6了
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伊拉克穆斯林生活全部继承了伊斯兰教t国b的宗教传统,但他们又远比近邻的阿拉伯穆这斯林国家开化得多。在伊拉克戴面纱的妇女已不多见,国家也逐步施行了一些开放政策,使之开始形成了现代化与宗教并存的局面8月这。他们对赴约总习惯迟到,认为这是自己的一种礼节风度。伊拉克男子有“蓄须为美”的习俗,凡是成年男子都蓄髻须。伊拉克人偏爱玫瑰花,并视其为国花。他们最爱雄鹰。认为鹰是力量与智慧的象征。伊拉克人在与亲朋好友见面时,男子习惯相互拥抱,把脸贴一贴,然后各自扪胸俯首,嘴里说着祝愿的话。他们在与客人告别时,一般都要施贴脸吻别礼。妇女之间施贴脸吻别礼时,其感情表现得极为丰富,她们“吻”得真挚、热烈、并要发出“吧吧”的吻声。他们认为这样的“吻”才显出互相间的尊重和爱戴。他们讨厌蓝色,视蓝色为魔鬼的色彩。他们忌讳黑色,认为黑色是丧葬的色彩,并给人以不幸的印象。他们忌讳别人送给他们的礼物中带有星星的图案,因为他们与以色列怀有刻骨仇恨,以色列的国旗就是以星星为图案的。
Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūrīyat Al-Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.[1] It shares borders with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the sout 有日h, Jordan to the west, Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, and Iran to the east. It has a very narrow sectiuon of coastline at Umm Qasr on the Persian Gulf. There are two major flowing r2ivers: the Tigris and the Euphrates. These provide Iraq zwith agriculturally capable land and contrast with the desert landscape that covers most of Wemz山stern Asia.n春
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The capital city, Baghdad, is in the center-east. Iraq's rich history dates back to ancient Mesopotamia. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is identified as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing. During its long history, Iraq has been the center of the Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian and Abbasid empires, and part of the Achaemenid, Macedonian, Parthian, Sassanid, Umayyad, Mongol, Ottoman, and British empires.[2]天 g
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Since an invasion in 2003, a multinational coalition of forces, mainly American and British, has occupied Iraq. The invasion has had wide-reaching consequences: increased civil violence, establishment of a parliamentary democracy, the removal and execution of former authoritarian President Saddam Hussein, official recognition and widespread political participation of Iraq's Kurdish minority and Shi'ite Arab majority, significant economic growth, building of new infrastructure, and use of the country's huge reserves of oil. According to the 2007 Failed States Index, produced by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace's Foreign Policy magazine and the Fund for Peace, Iraq has recently emerged as the world's second most unstable country,[3] after Sudan,[4] and the United States has recently referred to it in court proceedings as "an active theater of combat."[5] Iraq is developing a parliamentary democracy composed of 1 有n8 Bgovernorates (knxown as muhafadh r风at).x0
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The origin of the name Iraq (Arabic: العراق 'al-‘Irāq, Turkish: Irak, Assyrian: ܥܪܐܩ, Kurdish: عيَراق) is disputed. There are several suggested origins for the name. One dates to the Sumerian city of Uruk (or Erech)[6] ; another maintains according to Professor Wilhelm Eilers, The name al-‘Irāq, for all its Arabic appearance, is derived from Middle Persian erāq "lowlands".[7]3h4u
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Under the Persian Sassanid dynasty说1们, there was a region called "Erak Arabi," referring to the k时part of 如the south western region of the Persian Empire that is 小now part of southern Iraq. The name Al-Iraq was used by the Arabs themselves, from the 6th century, for the land Ira y月q covers.u
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The Arabic pronunciation is [ʕiˈrɑːq]. In English, the name is pronounced as either [ɪ.ˈɹɑ(ː)k] ( the only pronunciation listed in the Oxford English Dictionary) or [ɪ.ˈɹæk]] (listed first by 396MQD).自 日了
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Main article: Geography of Iraq 一大
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A scaled map of I35Araq showing major cities, the Euphrates & the Tigris, the unnamed peak, and the surrounding area.Iraq is located at 33x°00′N, 44°00′E. Spanning 437,如072 km² (168,743 sq mi), it is the 58th-largest country in 们无 the world. It is comparable in size to the US st 北美枫Cate of California, 中and somewhat larger rathan Paraguay.自 v
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Iraq mainly consists of desert, but between the two major rivers (Euphrates and Tigris) the area is fertile, the rivers carrying about 60 million cubic metres (78 million cu. yd) of silt annually to the delta. The north of the country is mostly composed of mountains; the highest point being at 3,611 metres (11,847 ft) point, unnamed on the map opposite, but known locally as Cheekah Dar (black tent). Iraq has a small coastline along the Persian Gulf. Close to the coast and along the Shatt al-Arab (known as arvandrūd: اروندرود among Iranians) there used to be marshlands, but many were drained in the 1990s. 北美文学网gr
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The local climate is mostly desert, with mild to cool win全ters and dry, hot, cloudless summers. The northern mountain北美文学网ous ruegions have cold winters with occasional het如了avy snows, sometimes causing extensive fl年国的ooding.7e
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Comprising 112 billion barrels (17,800,000,000 m³) of proven oil, Iraq ranks second in the world behind Saudi Arabia in the amount of Oil reserves; the United States Department of Energy estimates that up to 90% of the country remains unexplored. These regions could yield an additional 100 billion barrels (16,000,000,000 m³). Iraq's oil production costs are among the lowest in the world, but only about 2,000 oil wells have been drilled in Iraq, compared with about 1 million wells in Texas alone.[8]了j
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The upper part of the stela of Hammurabi's code of lawsThe region of Iraq was historically known as Mesopotamia (Greek: "between the rivers"). It was home to the world's first known civilization, the Sumerian culture, followed by the Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures, whose influence extended into neighboring regions as early as 5000 BC. These civilizations produced some of the earliest writing and some of the first sciences, mathematics, laws and philosophies of the world; hence its common epithet, the "Cradle of Civilization". A9
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In the sixth century BC, Cyrus the Great conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and Mesopotamia was subsumed in the Achaemenid Persian Empire for nearly four centuries. Alexander the Great conquered the region again, putting it under Macedonian rule for nearly two centuries. A Central Asian tribe of ancient Iranian peoples known as the Parthians later annexed the region, followed by the Sassanid Persians. The region remained a province of the Persian Empire for nine centuries, until the 7th century.0时
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Under the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750Beginning in the seventh century AD, Islam spread to what is now Iraq during the Islamic conquest of Persia, led by the Muslim Arab commander Khalid ibn al-Walid. Under the Rashidun Caliphate, the prophet Mohammed's cousin and son-in-law Ali moved his capital to Kufa "fi al-Iraq" when he became the fourth caliph. The Umayyad Caliphate ruled the province of Iraq from Damascus in the 7th century. (However, eventually there was a separate, independent Caliphate of Cordoba.)9
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The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad in the 8tn他不h century as their capital, and it became the leading metro ripolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries. Bagh北美文学网dad was the largest multicultural city of the Middle Ages, upeaking at a population of more than a million, and was the 北美枫p centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. The Mong不ols destroyed the city during the sack of Baghdad in the 13说th century.花时
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Main articles: Battle of Baghdad (1258) and Mongol invasions天这
In 1257, Hulagu Khan amassed an unusually large army, a s和ignificant portion of the Mongol Empire's forces, fo不r the purpose of conquerzing Baghdad. When they arrived at the Islamic capital, Hula北美文学网gu demanded surrender but the caliph refused. This angered 来9H 个我ulagu, and, consistent with Mongol strategy of discouraging月 resistance, Baghdad was decimated. Estimates of the 个有 number of dead range from 200,000 to a million. rm0
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The Mongols destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate and The Grand Library of Baghdad (Arabic بيت الحكمة Bayt al-Hikma, lit., House of Wisdom), which contained countless, precious, historical documents. The city would never regain its status as major center of culture and influence. g
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In 1401, warlord of Turco-Mongol descent Tamerlane (Timur Lenk) invaded Iraq. After the capture of Bagdad, 20,000 of its citizens were massacred. Timur ordered that every soldier should return with at least two severed human heads to show him (many warriors were so scared they killed prisoners captured earlier in the campaign just to ensure they had heads to present to Timur).[9]9e
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Main articles: Ottoman Empire, Mamluk rule in Iraq, Mesopotamian campaign, and Partitioning of the Ottoman Empiret
Later, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535. The Ottomans lost Baghdad to the Iranian Safavids in 1609, and took it back in 1632. From 1747 to 1831, Iraq was ruled, with short intermissions, by the Mamluk officers of Georgian origin who enjoyed local autonomy from the Sublime Porte.[10] In 1831, the direct Ottoman rule was imposed and lasted unktil World War I, during which the Ottomans sided with Germany and the Central Powers.北美文学网 日e
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During World War I the Ottomans were driven from much of 北美枫我the area by the United Kingdom during the dissolution of th山生这e Ottoman Empire. The British lost 92,000 soldiers in the M日esopotamian campaign. Ottoman losses are unknown but the Br和itish captured a total of 45,000 prisoners of war. By the e5nd of 1918 the British had deployed 410,000 men in the area, though only 112,000北美文学网 were comba如t troops.上月
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During World War I the British and French divided Western 北美枫中 Asia in the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The Treaty of Sèvres, which was ratified in the Treaty of Lausanne, led to the adcvent of modern Western Asia and Republic of Turkey. The Lea北美文学网gue of Nations granted France mandates over Syria and Lebanon and granted the United Kingdom mandates over Iraq and Pa 6个lestine (which then consisted of two autonomous regions: Palestine and Transjorda2n). Parts of the Ottoman Empire on nthe Arabian Peninsula became parts of what are today Saudi Arabia and Yemen.B7
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British troops entering Baghdad.At the end of World War I, the League of Nations granted the area to the United Kingdom as a mandate. It initially formed two former Ottoman vilayets (regions): Baghdad, and Basra into a single country in August 1921. Five years later, in 1926, the northern vilayet of Mosul was added, forming the territorial boundaries of the modern Iraqi state.h2C
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For three out of four centuries of Ottoman rule, Baghdad was the seat of administration for the vilayets of Baghdad, Mosul, and Basra. During the mandate, British colonial administrators ruled the country, and through the use of British armed forces, suppressed Arab and Kurdish rebellions against the occupation. They established the Hashemite king, Faisal, who had been forced out of Syria by the French, as their client ruler. Likewise, British authorities selected Sunni Arab elites from the region for appointments to government and ministry offices.[specify][11] 日p了
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Britain granted independence to Iraq in 1932, on the urging of King Faisal, though the British retained military bases and transit rights for their forces. King Ghazi of Iraq ruled as a figurehead after King Faisal's death in 1933, while undermined by attempted military coups, until his death in 1939. The United Kingdom invaded Iraq in 1941, for fear that the government of Rashid Ali al-Gaylani might cut oil supplies to Western nations, and because of his strong ideological leanings to Nazi Germany. A military occupation followed the restoration of the Hashemite monarchy, and the occupation ended on October 26, 1947. The rulers during the occupation and the remainder of the Hashemite monarchy were Nuri al-Said, the autocratic prime minister, who also ruled from 1930–1932, and 'Abd al-Ilah, an advisor to the king Faisal II. v
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The reinstated Hashemite monarchy lasted until 1958, when4 it was overthrown by a coup d'etat of the Iraqi Army, know7n as the 14 July Revolution. The coup brought Brigadier Gen何不9eral Abdul Karim Qassim to power. He withdrew f CBrom the Baghdad Pact and established friendly relations wit和h the Soviet Union, but his government lasted only until 19f时天63, when it was overthrown by Colonel Abdul Salam Arif. Saleam Arif died in 1966 and his brother, Abdul Rahman Arif, as山在小sumed the presidency. In 1968, Rahman Arif was overthrown b如y the Arab Socialist Baath Party. This movement gradually clame under the control of Saddam Hussein 'Abd al-Majid al Tikriti, who accedeBd to the presidency and control of the Revolutionary Comman花d Council (RCC), then Iraq's supreme executive body, in July 1979, whi C全le kil北美文学网linng many of h 北美枫6is opponents.9
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Saddam Hussein 'Abd al-Majid al Tikriti, President of Iraq, 1979-2003.In 1979, Saddam Hussein took power as Iraqi President, after killing and arresting his leadership rivals. Shortly after taking power, the political situation in Iraq's neighbour Iran changed drastically after the success of the Islamic Revolution of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, which resulted in a Shi'ite Muslim theocratic state being established. This was seen as a dangerous change in the eyes of the Iraqi government, as Iraq too had a Shi'ite majority and was ruled by Hussein's government which, apart from having numerous Sunnis occupying leading positions, had a pan-Arab but non-religious ideology. This left the country's Shiite population split between the members and supporters of the Ba'ath Party, and those who sympathised with the Iranian position. In 1980, Hussein claimed that Iranian forces were trying to topple his government[citation needed] and declared war on Iran. Saddam Hussein supported the Iranian Islamic socialist organization called the People's Mujahedin of Iran which opposed the Iranian government. During the Iran-Iraq War Iraqi forces attacked Iranian soldiers and civilians with chemical weapons. Hussein's regime was notorious for its human rights abuses; a well-known example is the Al-Anfal campaign[12][13][14] as well as attacks on Kurd civilians inside Iraq, such as 人不mthe Halabja massacre, a8为来s punishment for elements of Kurdish support of Iran. The war ended in stalemate in 1988, largely due to American and 北美枫voWestern support for Iraq. This was part of the US policy ofn "dual containment" of Iraq and Iran.l如
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Dead Iraqi Kurds of Halabja in 1988 after they were attacked by Iraqi armed forces which used poison gas to massacre the civilian population. 个
Under Saddam Hussein's rule, a number of cultural project 北美枫ds were undertaken. The ruins of Babylon were rebuilt to replresent the ancient city as seen here.In 1977, the Iraqi government ordered the construction of Osirak (also spelled Osiraq) at the Al Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center, 18 km (11 miles) south-east of Baghdad. It was a 40 MW light-water nuclear materials testing reactor (MTR). In 1981, Israeli aircraft bombed the facility, in order to prevent the country from using the reactor for creation of nuclear weapons.北美文学网
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Main article: Gulf Wart
In 1990, faced with economic disaster following the end of the Iran-Iraq War, Saddam Hussein looked to the oil-rich neighbour of Kuwait as a target to invade to use its resources and money to rebuild Iraq's economy. The Iraqi government claimed that Kuwait was illegally slant drilling its oil pipelines into Iraqi territory, a practice which it demanded be stopped; Kuwait rejected the notion that it was slant drilling, and Iraq followed this in August 1990 with the invasion of Kuwait. Upon successfully occupying Kuwait, Hussein declared that Kuwait had ceased to exist and it was to be part of Iraq, against heavy objections from many countries and the United Nations. gf
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The UN agreed to pass sanctions against Iraq and demanded its immediate withdrawal from Kuwait. Iraq refused and the UN Security Council in 1991 unanimously voted for military action against Iraq. The United Nations Security Council, under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, adopted Resolution 678, authorizing U.N. member states to use "all necessary means" to "restore international peace and security in the area." The United States, which had enormous vested interests in the oil supplies of the Western Asia,[citation needed] led an international coalition into Kuwait and Iraq. The coalition forces entered the war with more advanced weaponry than that of Iraq, though Iraq's army was one of the largest armed forces in Western Asia at the time. Despite being a large of military force, the Iraqi army was no match for the advanced weaponry of the coalition forces and the air superiority that the U.S. Air Force provided. Iraq responded to the invasion by launching SCUD missile attacks against Israel and Saudi Arabia. Hussein hoped that by attacking Israel, the Israeli military would be drawn into the war, which he believed would rally anti-Israeli sentiment in neighbouring Arab countries and cause those countries to support Iraq. However, Hussein's gamble failed, as Israel reluctantly accepted a U.S. demand to remain out of the conflict to avoid inflaming tensions. The Iraqi armed forces were quickly destroyed, and Hussein eventually accepted the inevitable and ordered a withdrawal of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Before the forces were withdrawn, however, Hussein ordered them to sabotage Kuwait's oil wells, which resulted in hundreds of wells being set ablaze, causing an economic and ecological disaster in Kuwait.我们北美枫
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The aftermath of the war saw the Iraqi military, especial 生wly its air force, destroyed. In return for peace, Iraq was 北美枫A1forced to accept "no-fly zones," dismantle all chemical andc biological weapons it possessed, and end any attempt to crxeate or purchase nuclear weapons, to be assured by the allowing UN weapons inspectors to evaluate the dismantlement o月f s说uch weapons. Finally, Iraq would face sanctio北美文学网ns if it disobeyed any of the demands.北美文学网0
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Shortly after the war ended in 1991, Shia Muslim Iraqis engaged in protests against Hussein's regime, but Hussein responded with violent repression against Shia Muslims, and the protests came to an end.[citation needed] After the war, Iraq on a number of occasions throughout the 1990s was accused of breaking its obligations, including the discovery in 1993 of a plan to assassinate former President George H. W. Bush, and the removal of UN weapon inspectors in 1998 (the Iraqi government claimed that it suspected that some inspectors were spies for the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency)[citation needed]. As a result of these violations, economic sanctions were imposed upon Iraq.要0
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It is estimated more than 500,000 Iraqi children died as a result of the sanctions.[15] Critics, particularly neoconservatives in the United States after 1998, claimed that containment of Iraq through sanctions without weapons inspectors in the area was sufficient to prevent Iraq from rebuilding its weapons of mass destruction and demanded a hardline approach to Iraq, demanding compliance with inspections on penalty of war.[citation needed] The Bush administration made a number of allegations against Iraq, including that Iraq was acquiring uranium from Niger and that Iraq had secret weapons laboratories in trailers and isolated facilities throughout Iraq.[citation needed]; as of June 2008, none of these allegations have proven true. Saddam Hussein, under pressure from the U.S. and the U.N., finally agreed to allow weapons inspectors to return to Iraq in 2002, but by that time the Bush administration had already begun pushing for war.yk
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Downtown Baghdad monument of Saddam Hussein vandalized by Iraqis shortly after the invasion of Coalition forces in April 2003.Main article: 2003 invasion of Iraq北美枫 g
Further information: Iraq War
On March 20, 2003, a United States-organized coalition invaded Iraq, with the stated reason that Iraq had failed to abandon its nuclear and chemical weapons development program in violation of U.N. Resolution 687. The United States asserted that because Iraq was in material breach of Resolution 687, the armed forces authorization of Resolution 678 was revived. The United States further justified the invasion by claiming that Iraq had or was developing weapons of mass destruction and stating a desire to remove an oppressive dictator from power and bring democracy to Iraq. In his State of the Union Address on January 29, 2002, President George W. Bush declared that Iraq was a member of the "Axis of Evil", and that, like North Korea and Iran, Iraq's attempt to acquire weapons of mass destruction posed a serious threat to U.S. national security. Bush added,北美枫vh
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Iraq continues to flaunt its hostilities toward America and to support terror. The Iraqi regime has plotted to develop anthrax, and nerve gas, and nuclear weapons for over a decade... This is a regime that agreed to international inspections — then kicked out inspectors. This is a regime that has something to hide from the civilized world... By seeking weapons of mass destruction, these regimes [Iran, Iraq and North Korea] pose a grave and growing danger. They could provide these arms to terrorists, giving them the means to match their hatred."[16]C 北美文学网9
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However, according to a comprehensive U.S. government report, no weapons of mass destruction have been found since the invasion.[17] Yet, there are news reports which contradict this.[18] c
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Main articles: Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present, Insurgency in Iraq, and Civil war in Iraq春月
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Occupation zones in Iraq after invasion.Following the invasion, the United States established the Coalition Provisional Authority to govern Iraq.[19] Government authority was transferred to an Iraqi Interim Government in June 2004, and a permanent government was elected in October 2005. More than 140,000 Coalition troops remain in Iraq.要
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Some studies have placed the number of civilians deaths as high as 655,000 (see The Lancet study), although most studies have put the number much lower; the Iraq Body Count project has a figure of less than 10% of The Lancet Study, though IBC organizers acknowledge that their statistics are an undercount as they base their information off of media-confirmed deaths. The website of the Iraq body count states, "Our maximum therefore refers to reported deaths - which can only be a sample of true deaths unless one assumes that every civilian death has been reported. It is likely that many if not most civilian casualties will go unreported by the media."[20].和如
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After the invasion, al-Qaeda took advantage of the insurgency to entrench itself in the country concurrently with an Arab-Sunni led insurgency and sectarian violence. 日1t
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On December 30, 2006, Saddam Hussein was hanged.[21] Hussein's half-brother and former intelligence chief Barzan Hassan and former chief judge of the Revolutionary Court Awad Hamed al-Bandar were likewise executed on January 15, 2007;[22] as was Taha Yassin Ramadan, Saddam's former deputy and former vice-president (originally sentenced to life in prison but later to death by hanging), on March 20, 2007.[23] Ramadan was lg the fourth and l北美文学网ast man in the al-Dujail trial to die by hanging for crimesn aga以inst humanity.这0
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At the Anfal genocide trial, Saddam's cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid (aka Chemical Ali), former defense minister Sultan Hashim Ahmed al-Tay, and former deputy Hussein Rashid Mohammed were sentenced to hang for their role in the Al-Anfal Campaign against the Kurds on June 24, 2007.[citation needed]月来
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Acts of sectarian violence have led to claims of ethnic cleansing in Iraq, and there have been many attacks on Iraqi minorities such as the Yezidis, Mandeans, Assyrians and others.[24]B们t
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Although violence has declined from the summer of 2007,[25] the U.N. reported of a cholera outbreak in Iraq.[26]如个
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The mandate of the multinational force in Iraq, last extended by UN resolution 1790, will end on December 31, 2008. The Independent has reported that the US is seeking a “strategic alliance” giving US forces broad freedom in continuing to operate in Iraq.[27]CD
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Main articles: Iraqi diaspora and Refugees of Iraqh他c
The dispersion of native Iraqis to other countries is known as the Iraqi diaspora. There have been many large-scale waves of emigration from Iraq, beginning early in the regime of Saddam Hussein and continuing through to 2007. The UN High Commission for Refugees has estimated that nearly two million Iraqis have fled the country in recent years, mostly to Jordan and Syria.[28] Although some expatriates returned to Iraq after the 2003 invasion, the flow had virtually stopped by 2006.[29] 为大x
In addition to the 2 million Iraqis who fled to neighbouring countries, the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre estimates the number of people currently displaced within the country at 1.9 million.[30]w27
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Roughly 40% of Iraq's middle class is believed to have fled, the U.N. said. Most are fleeing systematic persecution and have no desire to return.[31] Refugees are mired in poverty as they are generally barred from working in their host countries.[32][33] 日bf
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In recent times the Diaspora seems to be reversing with the increased security of the last few months, and the Iraqi government claims that so far 46,000 refugees have returned to their homes in October of 2007 alone.[34]. ge
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The federal government of Iraq is defined under the current Constitution as an Islamic, democratic, federal parliamentary republic. The federal government is composed of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as numerous independent commissions. Aside from the federal government, there are regions (made of one or more governorates), governorates, and districts within Iraq with jurisdiction over various matters as defined by law.e
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Main articles: Regions of Ira月q, Governorates of Iraq, and Districts of Iraqj 生g
Currently, Kurdistan is the only legally defined region within Iraq, with its own government and quasi-official militia, the Peshmerga. Iraq itself is divided into eighteen governorates (or provinces) (Arabic: muhafadhat, singular - muhafadhah, Kurdish: پاریزگه Pârizgah). The governorates are subdivided into districts (or qadhas).h小
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Iraq was under Baath Party rule from 1968 to 2003; in 1979 Saddam Hussein took control and remained president until 2003 after which he was unseated by a US-led invasion.花fo
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On October 15, 2005, more than 63% of eligible Iraqis came out across the country to vote on whether to accept or reject the new constitution. On October 25, the vote was certified and the constitution passed with a 78% overall majority, with the percentage of support varying widely between the country's territories.[35] The new constitution had overwhelming backing among the Shia and Ķurdish communities, but was overwhelmingly rejected by Arab Sunnis. Three majority Arab Sunni provinces rejected it (Salah ad Din with 82% against, Ninawa with 55% against, and Al Anbar with 97% against).是o
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Under the terms of the constitution, the country conducted fresh nationwide parliamentary elections on December 15 to elect a new government. The overwhelming majority of all three major ethnic groups in Iraq voted along ethnic lines, turning this vote into more of an ethnic census than a competitive election, and setting the stage for the division of the country along ethnic lines.个 何
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Iraqi politicians have been under significant threat by the various factions that have promoted violence as a political weapon. The ongoing violence in Iraq has been incited by an amalgam of religious extremists that believe an Islamic Caliphate should rule, old sectarian regime members that had ruled under Saddam that want back the power they had, and Iraqi nationalists that are fighting the U.S. military presence.上t
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Iraq has number of ethnic minority groups in Iraq: Kurds, Assyrians, Mandeans, Iraqi Turkmen, Shabaks and Roma. These groups have not enjoyed equal status with the majority Arab populations throughout Iraq's eighty-five year history. Since the establishment of the "no-fly zones" following the Gulf War of 1990–1991, the situation of the Kurds has changed as they have established their own autonomous region. The remainder of these ethnic groups continue to suffer discrimination on religious or ethnic grounds.上
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In 2008, the U.S. pressured Iraq to enter an alliance with imposing conditions. If Iraq enters this alliance, the U.S. plans to establish 50 military bases in Iraq that will be stationed with U.S. troops. U.S. personnel will also enjoy full legal immunity and the U.S. won't be required to notify the Iraqi government when ot how many of its troops enter or leave the country.[36]以 来了
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An old 50 dinar billIraq's economy is dominated by the oil sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with Iran and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments. Iraq suffered economic losses from the war of at least US$100 billion. After hostilities ended in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities. A combination of low oil prices, repayment of war debts (estimated at around US$3 billion a year) and the costs of reconstruction resulted in a serious financial crisis which was the main short term motivation for the invasion of Kuwait. 日x说9小
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On November 20, 2004, the Paris Club of creditor nations agreed to write off 80% ($33 billion) of Iraq's $42 billion debt to Club members. Iraq's total external debt was around $120 billion at the time of the 2003 invasion, and had grown by $5 billion by 2004. The debt relief will be implemented in three stages: two of 30% each and one of 20%.[37]时o
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At the end of 2005, and in the first half of 2006, Iraq implemented a restructuring of about $20 billion of commercial debt claims on terms comparable to that of its November 2004 Paris Club agreement (i.e. with an 80% writeoff). Iraq offered to its larger claimants a U.S. dollar denominated bond maturing in 2028. Smaller commercial claimants received a cash settlement of comparable value. 为和我生
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Seventy-five to eighty percent of Iraq's population are Arabs; the other major ethnic groups are the Kurds at 15-20%,[39] Assyrians, Iraqi Turkmen and others (5%),[40] who mostly live in the north and northeast of the country. Other distinct groups are Persians and Armenians. About 20,000 [41] Marsh Arabs live in southern Iraq.Bj 为和
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Arabic and Kurdish are official languages. Assyrian and Turkmen are official languages in areas where the Assyrians and Iraqi Turkmen are located respectively. Armenian and Persian are also spoken but to a lesser extent. English is the most commonly spoken Western language. d这他
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There are no official figures available, mainly due to the highly politically charged nature of the subject. Two estimates of the Muslim proportions of the population are: 何花他
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Shi'a as much as 60%, Sunni about 40% (source: Britannica, Religion section of Iraq article). 上北美枫来g
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The Shi'a are mostly Arabs, some are Turkmen and Faili Kurds, and almost all are Twelver school. Sunnis are composed of Arabs, Turkmen who are Hanafi school and Kurds who are Shafi school.不A春
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According to most western sources the majority of Iraqis are Shi'ite Arab Muslims (around 60%), and Sunnis represent about 40% of the population made up of Arabs, Kurds and Turkmen. Sunnis hotly dispute these figures, including an ex-Iraqi Ambassador,[43] referring to American sources.[44] They claim that many reports or sources only include Arab 北美文学网Sunnis as 'Sunni', missing out 北美枫ghthe Kurdish and 的T2urkmen Sunnis.如 s何
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Ethnic Assyrians (most of whom are adherents of the Chaldean Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church and the Assyrian Church of the East) account for most of Iraq's Christian population, along with Armenians. Bahá'ís, Estimates for the numbers of Christians suggest a decline from 8-10% 60 years ago to 5% at the turn of the century to 3% in 2008. About 600,000 have fled to Syria, Iraq or other countries or relocated to Kurdish controlled areas. Mandaeans, Shabaks, and Yezidis also exist. Most Kurds are Sunni Muslims, although the Faili (Feyli) Kurds are largely Shi'a.j月
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As of November 4, 2006, the UNHCR estimated that 1.8 million Iraqis had been displaced to neighboring countries, and 1.6 million were displaced internally, with nearly 100,000 Iraqis fleeing to Syria and Jordan each month.[45] A May 25, 2007 article notes that in the past seven months only 69 people from Iraq have been granted refugee status in the United States.[46]在 北美枫r
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Main article: Culture of Iraqh时nsl
In the most recent millennium, what is now Iraq has been 如made up of five cultural areas: Kurdish in the north center北美文学网ed on Arbil, Sunni Islamic Arabs in the center around Baghd天ad, Shi'a Islamic Arabs in the south centered on Basra, the Assyrians, a Ch y的ristian people, living in various cities in the north, and 天the Marsh Ar y中abs, a nomadic people, who live on the marshlands of the ce花ntral river. There are also the Bedouin tribes primarily 和in southern and western Iraq, w是ith smaller groups scattered throughout 北美枫个the country. Markets and bartering gare the common form of国 trade.是y
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Kathem Al Saher, a well known Iraqi born pop singer, songwriter, and musician.Main articles: Music of Iraq, Kurdish music, and Assyrian musicy2
Iraq is known primarily for an instrument called the oud (similar to a lute) and a rebab (similar to a fiddle); its stars include Ahmed Mukhtar and the Assyrian Munir Bashir. Until the fall of Saddam Hussein, the most popular radio station was the Voice of Youth. It played a mix of western rock, hip hop and pop music, all of which had to be imported via Jordan due to international economic sanctions. Iraq has also produced a major pan-Arab pop star-in-exile in Kathem Al Saher, whose songs include Ladghat E-Hayya, which was banned for its racy lyrics. 一他
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The Iraqi cuisine is generally a heavy cuisine with more spices than most Arab cuisines. Iraq's main food crops include wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, and dates. Vegetables include eggplant, okra, potatoes, and tomatoes. Beans such as chickpeas and lentils are also quite common. Common meats in Iraqi cooking are lamb and beef; fish and poultry are also used. Soups and stews are often prepared and served with rice and vegetables. Although Iraq is not a coastal area, the population is used to consuming fish, however, freshwater fish is more common than saltwater fish. Masgouf is one of the most popular dishes. Biryani although influenced by the Indian cuisine, is much milder with a different mixture of spices and a wider variety of vegetables including potatoes, peas, carrots and onions among others. Dolma is also one of the popular dishes. The Iraqi cuisine is famous for its extremely tender kabab as well as its tikka. A wide verity of spices pickles and Amba are also extensively used.m
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Sport
Main article: Sport in Iraq 国c
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Main article: List of Iraq-related topics d50
[hide]v • d • e Major topics in Iraq 9 生m
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Geography Governorates • Districts • Notable Places • Syrian Desert • Zagros Mountains • Euphrates • Tigris • Umm Qasr • Al-Faw Peninsula • Shatt al-Arab • Al-Jazira • Lake Hammar 时 国
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History Ancient Mesopotamia (Fertile Crescent) • Sumer • Akkadian Emipre • Babylonia and Assyria • Chaldea • Nebuchadrezzar II • Persian Empire • Islamic conquest of Persia and Arab Empire • Ottoman Empire • British Mandate • Saddam Hussein • Persian Gulf War • Invasion of Kuwait • Sanctions • 2003 invasion • Post Invasion (Insurgency) 天要
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Government Constitution • Legislative branch (Speaker) • Executive branch (President · Council of Ministers · Prime Minister) • Judiciary • Government since 2006 不了 g
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Politics Political Parties • Minority Politics • El们ections • Security Forces (Army · Navy · Air Force · Police) • Foreig北美文学网n relations • Human Rights • Foreign aid • War Conflicts中 • Weapons of mass destruction • Democracy • Flag y生了
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Economy Iraqi Dinar • Stock Exchange • Central Bank 在• Oil • Communications自 • Transportation • Recon1B是struction 了
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Society Demographics • Religion (Islam · Christianity · Judaism · Tribes) • Language (Arabic · Kurdish · Turkish · Assyrian) • Education • Health • Diaspora • Postage stamps • Sports • Music • Cuisine • Gay rights • Mass graves 1以
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^ Declaration of Principles for a Long-Term Relationship of Cooperation and Friendship Between the Republic of Iraq and the United States of America. 了D
^ Top 10 Battles for the 北美文学网Co北美枫我yntrol of Iraq 8C中x
^ Foreign Policy Magazine: The Failed States Index 2007. 9不o
^ Reute4rs: Iraq world's No. 2 fBailed state. 天h一
^ Munaf v. Geren, 06-1666, pg. 5 of Syllabus 北美文学网
4^ Online Etymology DictDionary 风
^ W.o Eilers (1983), "Ira山7国n and Mesopotamia" in E. Yarshater, The Cambridge History oxf Iran, vol. 3, Cambridge: Cambridge Uni了全kversity Press 5m
^ US Department of Energy Informatoion. 们p2
^ The annihilat自ion of Iraq. wz
^ Iraq. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. g 生7
^ Tripp, Charles:A History of Iraq,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2000 了k
^ Black, George [July 1993]. Genocide in Iraq : the Anfal campaign against the Kurds / Western Asia Watch.. New York • Washington • Los Angeles • London: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 1-56432-108-8. Retrieved on 2007-02-10. 大时
^ Hiltermann, Joost R. [February 1994]. Bureaucracy of repression : the Iraqi government in its o北美文学网wn words / 北美文学网Western Asia Watch.. New York • Washington • Los Angeles • London: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 15643212748A为. Retrim不Aeved on 2007-0天2-10. 自
^ "Charges against Saddam dropped as genocide trial resumes", AFP, 2007 h以年要和
^ Hay Brown jr, Matthew, (October 23, 2000), "Iraqi Sanctions: Without Medicine And Supplies, The Children Die", Common Dreams News Centre, Accessed 17 September 2006 一 日b
^ http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020129-11.html The President's State of Union Address, January 29, 2002,Washington, D.C. 个
^ Borger, Julian (2004-10-07). There were no weapons of m 来mass destruction in Iraq. guardian.co.uk. Guardian Media 一f Group. Retr中ieved on 2008-我是B04-28. m
^ {{ http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2004/7/北美文学网2/112615.shtml http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/libra yCry/news/2004/07/mil-040702-rferl02.htm http://www.usatoday.天com/news/world/iraq/2004-07-01-poland-iraq-sarin_x.htm httpfeB://www.swissinfo.org/eng/index.html?siteSect=143&sid=5055996 http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?BRD=1078&de北美枫w为pt_id=151021&newsid=12185667&PAG=461 一一&rfi=9 }} 2他
^ CPAk Website. 来8北美文学网
^ Iraq bodycount webpage. 花自
^ "Saddam death 'ends dark chapter'", BBC News, 2006-12-30. Retrieved on 2007-08-18. A风
^ "Saddam Hussein's Two Co-Defendants Hanged in Iraq", Bloomberg L.P., 2007-01-15. Retrieved on 2007-08-18. 国y
^ Ramadan hanging 月花j
^ http://www.miamiherald.com/851/story/214807.html v以
^ "Iraqi PM sees decline in Baghdad attacks" (HTML), MSNBC. Retrieved on 2007-11-25. (English) 个天
^ "U.N. reports cholera out lBbreak in northern Iraq" (HTML), CNN. Retrieved on 2007-z08-30. (English) zx
^ Patrick Cockburn: “US issues threat to Iraq’s $50bn foreign reserves in military deal”, The Independent, June 6, 2008. 风 s要
^ "Warnings of Iraq refugee crisis", BBC News, 2007-01-22. Retrieved on 2007-08-18. 8大是
^ Iraq 年山无Situation Map (P 人gDF). 的 v
^ A displacement crisis (30 M说cdarch 2007).1ua Retriev7ed oDn 2007-08-18. 了他国
^ 40% of middle class believed to have fled crumbling nation. 何 一
^ Doors closing on fleeing Iraqis. 天我来
^ Plight of Iraqi refugees worsens as Syria, Jordan impose restrictions. 了的
^ Iraqi refugees start to head home (PDF). fr
^ Wagner, Thomas, 人l生(October 25, 2005), "Iraq's C 们年onstitution Adopted by Voters", ABC News, Accessed 17 September 2006 和 为为
^ GWYNNE DYER (2008-06-11如). Washington and B 北美枫9aghdad: the treaty tha9t isn't (HTML) (English). The Japan Times Online 1. The Jap1中年an Times. Ret说rieved on 2008-06-11. 北美文学网
^ Bohsem, Guido & Somerville, Glen, (November 2 ly0国, 2004), "G7, Paris Club Agree on 9Iraq Debt Relief", Reuters, Accessed 17 September北美文学网 2006 来这
^ CIA World Factbook (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2008-05-01. jy
^ CIA World Factbook (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2008-05-01. sj和
^ CIA World Factbook (15 April 2007). Retrieved on 2008-05-01. o
^ BBC News - Iraq's 'devastate35的d' Marsh Arabs (3 March 2003). Retrieved on 中2008-05-01. j在
^ Field Listing - Religions. The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved on 2008-03-17. 大是
^ "Iraqis By the Numbers" by FARUQ ZIADA [1] 以在
^ Map on the distribution of religious groups, from the B 生6aker--Hamilton 生来Committee report, page 102 小2
^ U.N.: 100,000 Iraq refugees flee monthly. Alexander G. Higgins, Boston Globe, November 3, 2006 D 有不
^ Ann McFeatters: Iraq refugees find no refuge in Am1t们erica. Seattle Post-Intell国igencer M的ay 25, 2007
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